csubj:cleft: clausal residual subject of a cleft sentence
Cleft sentences arise when an element (i.e. a phrase) in a matrix clause is extracted for emphasis and put into a prominent position with respect to the other elements of the clause.
In Latin, cleft sentences are sentences that have the structure of a non-verbal, copular predication where the extracted element is in focus position as the non-verbal predicate, and the residual elements of the matrix clause act together as the subject, which can be introduced by a nominal element (cf. nsubj:cleft) or be left clausal, without an antecedent. The copula usually agrees with the extracted element (mostly in the third person singular). The common cleft subrelation captures
In the subject of a cleft sentence, the gap left by the extracted phrase is recovered by means of a relative element, usually a pronoun (e.g. qui, ubi) but also possibly a determiner (e.g. qualis). This element is put in first position and morphosyntactically acts the same way the original phrase did (i.e. same case, number, gender…). A cleft sentence with clausal residual subject is thus characterised by the apparent mismatch of a relative clause which does not actually act in an attributive function with respect to the non-verbal predicate and does not have an antecedent.
Any kind of phrase at any nesting level can be extracted; sometimes the cleft subject will be introduced by a complementiser, or some other minor adjustments are introduced in order for the sentence to be grammatically acceptable.
In the following examples, | points to the splitting point in the cleft sentence.
ROOT Hic est | quem Petrus , Dei vicarius , honorificare nos monet ; quem Clemens , nunc Petri successor , luce Apostolice benedictionis illuminat ; ut ubi radius spiritualis non sufficit , ibi splendor minoris luminaris illustret . \n ROOT This is whom Peter , of-God vicar , to-honour us reminds ; whom Clemens , now of-Peter successor , with-light Apostolic of-blessing lightens ; so-that where ray spiritual not suffices , there splendor minor of-luminary illuminate .
root(ROOT-1,Hic)
csubj:cleft(Hic,monet)
cop(Hic,est)
obj(honorificare,quem-5)
conj(monet,illuminat)
obj(illuminat,quem-15)
root(ROOT-41,This)
csubj:cleft(This,reminds)
cop(This,is)
obj(to-honour,whom-44)
conj(reminds,illuminate)
obj(illuminate,whom-54)
‘This is he whom Peter, the Vicar of God, exhorts us to honour, and whom Clement, the present successor of Peter, illumines with the light of the Apostolic benediction; [so] that where the spiritual ray suffices not, there the splendour of the lesser luminary may lend its light.’ (Letters V, UDante)
- Matrix clauses:
- Petrus, Dei vicarius, monet nos hunc honorificare. (object argument)
- Clemens, nunc Petri successor, luce Apostolice benedictionis hunc illuminat. (object argument)
- Note that in the first conjunct the object hunc ‘him’ is extracted from the clausal complement of monet ‘he exhorts’ headed by honorificare ‘to honour’, i.e. from a nested argument.
ROOT Hic est | apud quem cubitum ponitis . \n ROOT This is by whom elbow ye-set-down .
root(ROOT-1,Hic)
csubj:cleft(Hic,ponitis)
cop(Hic,est)
obl(ponitis,quem)
root(ROOT-11,This)
csubj:cleft(This,ye-set-down)
cop(This,is)
obl(ye-set-down,whom)
‘It is at this man’s table that you are dining.’ (Satyricon, C. Petronius)
- Matrix clause:
- Apud hunc cubitum ponitis. (oblique argument)
ROOT Hanc domum | iam multos annos est | cum possideo et colo . \n ROOT This house already many years is when I-own and I-tend .
root(ROOT-1,annos)
csubj:cleft(annos,possideo)
cop(annos,est)
mark(possideo,cum)
root(ROOT-16,years)
csubj:cleft(years,I-own)
cop(years,is)
mark(I-own,when)
‘This house, it is many years that I own it and live in it.’ (Aulularia, Plautus)
- Matrix clause:
- Hanc domum iam multos annos possideo et colo. (temporal oblique argument)
- hanc domum ‘this house’ is itself dislocated at the beginning of the sentence, but belongs to the clausal subject. This is probably an example of Latin as it was actually spoken.
###References
- Goria, E. (2013). Towards a taxonomy of Latin cleft sentences, Journal of Latin Linguistics, 12(2): 147 – 172
csubj:cleft in other languages: [ga] [gd] [gv] [la]