Dependencies
Note: nmod, neg, and punct appear in two places.
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acl: clausal modifier of noun
acl is used for finite and non-finite clauses that modify a noun, including cases of secondary predication.
Note that in French relative clauses get assigned a specific relation acl:relcl, a subtype of acl.
Non-relative clausal dependents of nouns are limited to complement clauses with a subset of nouns like fait (fact). We analyze them as acl (parallel to the analysis of this class as “content clauses” in Huddleston and Pullum 2002).
The acl relation is also used for secondary predicates modifying a nominal:
acl:relcl: relative clause modifier
The acl:relcl relation is used for relative clauses modifying
a nominal. The relation points from the head of the nominal to the
head of the relative clause.
advcl: adverbial clause modifier
An adverbial clause modifier is a clause which modifies a verb or other predicate (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. This includes things such as a temporal clause, consequence, conditional clause, purpose clause, etc. The dependent must be clausal (or else it is an advmod) and the dependent is the main predicate of the clause.
advmod: adverbial modifier
An adverbial modifier of a word is a (non-clausal) adverb or adverbial phrase that serves to modify the meaning of the word.
amod: adjectival modifier
An adjectival modifier of a nominal is any adjectival phrase that serves to modify the meaning of the nominal head.
appos: appositional modifier
An appositional modifier of a noun is a nominal immediately following the first noun that serves to define or modify that noun. It includes parenthesized examples, as well as defining abbreviations in one of these structures.
aux: auxiliary
An auxiliary of a clause is a non-main verb of the clause.
Exception: An auxiliary verb used to construct the passive
voice is not labeled aux but auxpass.
auxpass: passive auxiliary
A passive auxiliary of a clause is a non-main verb of the clause which contains the passive information.
Other auxiliaries associated with the same main verb are not labeled auxpass but aux since they do not themselves indicate passive voice.
case: case marking
The case relation is used for any preposition in French. Prepositions are treated as dependents of the noun they attach to or introduce in an “extended nominal projection”. Thus, UD does not treat a preposition as a mediator between a modified word and its object. The case relation aims at providing a uniform analysis of prepositions and case in morphologically rich languages.
cc: coordinating conjunction
A coordinating conjunction relation holds between the head conjunct of a coordinate structure and any of the coordinating conjunction involved in the structure. This also includes the first element in paired conjunctions like ni … ni “nor … nor”. Note that we never treat punctuation as coordinating conjunctions. For more on coordination, see the French conj relation as well as the universal dependency page (conj).
ccomp: clausal complement
A clausal complement of a verb or adjective is a dependent clause where the subject is not determined by obligatory control, either because the clause has its own overt subject or because the subject is arbitrary or determined anaphorically. (This contrasts with the xcomp relation, which is used for clausal complements with obligatory control.)
compound: compound
compound in French is used for compounds like the following:
conj: conjunct
The conjunct relation holds between coordinated elements. We treat
coordination asymmetrically: The head of the relation is the first
conjunct and other conjuncts depend on it via the conj relation.
cop: copula
A copula is the relation between the complement of a copular verb and
the copular verb. Copular heads are avoided when possible. For more on the cop relation, see the universal dependency description (cop)
In the current French treebank, the following verbs are treated as copular ones: être, devenir, rester, demeurer, as well as in some constructions appeler, intituler, nommer, réputer, élir
csubj: clausal subject
A clausal subject is a clausal syntactic subject of a clause, i.e., the subject is itself a clause. The governor of this relation might not always be a verb: when the verb is a copular verb, the root of the clause is the complement of the copular verb.
csubjpass: clausal passive subject
A clausal passive subject is a clausal syntactic subject of a passive clause. It is not a very common construction in French. In the example below, qu’il avait triché is the clausal subject.
dep: unspecified dependency
A dependency is labeled as dep when a more precise dependency relation between two words cannot be determined. This may be because of a weird grammatical construction, a limitation in software, a parser error, or because of an unresolved long distance dependency.
det: determiner
A determiner is the relation between the head of a nominal phrase and its determiner.
A possessive determiner is marked with the nmod:poss relation:
discourse: discourse element
This is used for interjections and other discourse particles and elements, which are not clearly linked to the structure of the sentence except in an expressive way.
dislocated: dislocated elements
The dislocated relation is used for fronted or postposed elements
that do not fulfill the usual core grammatical relations of a
sentence. Dislocated elements are attached to the same governor as the dependent that they double for.
This construction is quite frequent is spoken French. It has not been yet annotated in the French treebank.
dobj: direct object
A direct object is a nominal which is the (accusative) object of the verbal predicate.
The dobj relation is also used for a reflexive pronoun in pronominal verb when the pronoun is a direct object of the verb. When the grammatical relation of the pronoun is not a direct object nor an indirect object (as in se douter “to suspect”), the pronoun gets analyzed as expl.
expl: expletive
This relation captures expletive or pleonastic nominals. These are nominals that appear in an argument position of a predicate but which do not themselves satisfy any of the semantic roles of the predicate. There is further discussion and examples on the universal dependency page (expl).
In Romance languages, pronouns in prominal verbs which do not have a semantic role are marked as expl such as se in se douter. In French the expl relation is also used for euphonic elements, such as l’ in e.g. et que l’on retrouve or t in a-t-il reçu mon email?
Note that currenlty expletives are not annotated consistently in the French treebank.
foreign: foreign words
The foreign relation can be used to label sequences of foreign words. These are given
a linear analysis: the head is the first token in the foreign phrase.
goeswith: goes with
This relation links two parts of a word that are separated in text that is not well edited, or due to tokenization errors. The head is in some sense the main part.
This relation is not used in the French treebank.
iobj: indirect object
An indirect object is a nominal which corresponds to a dative object.
When the indirect object is realized with a preposition, it gets analyzed with the nmod relation:
The iobj relation is also used for pronouns in prononimal verbs which are indirect objects:
list: list
The list relation is used for chains of comparable items. It is not currently attested in the French treebank.
Web text often contains passages which are meant to be interpreted as lists but are parsed as single sentences. Email signatures in particular contain these structures, in the form of contact information: the different contact information items are labeled as list; the key-value pair relations are labeled as appos.
In lists with more than two items, all items of the list shoud modify the first one.
mark: marker
A marker is the word introducing a clause subordinate to another clause. The marker is a dependent of the subordinate clause head.
Prepositions introducing infinitives are also analyzed as mark.
mwe: multi-word expression
The multi-word expression (modifier) relation is one of the three
relations (compound, mwe, name) for compounding.
It is used for certain fixed grammaticized expressions that behave
like function words or short adverbials.
name: name
The name relation is one of the three relations for compounding in UD (together
with compound and mwe).
It is used for proper nouns constituted of multiple nominal
elements. For example, name would be used between the words of
Hillary Rodham Clinton, New York, or Carl XVI Gustaf but not to
replace the usual relations in a phrasal or clausal name like The
king of Belgium or the novels The Lord of the Rings and Captured By
Aliens.
Words joined by name should all be part of a minimal noun phrase;
otherwise regular syntactic relations should be used. This is
basically similar to the treatment of noun compounds with
compound, except that in many cases parts of the name may be
another nominal element such as an adjective (United Airlines).
In general, names are annotated in a flat, head-initial structure, in
which all words in the name modify the head using the name
label.
For names with a clear syntactic modification structure, the dependencies should instead reflect the syntactic modification structure using regular syntactic relations, as in:
neg: negation modifier
The negation modifier is the relation between a negation word and the word it modifies. Both elements of double negation are marked as neg. Note that in colloquial French, the first element of the double negation is often not present.
nmod: nominal modifier
The nmod relation is used for nominal modifiers of nouns or clausal
predicates. nmod is a noun functioning as a non-core (oblique)
argument or adjunct. In French, nmod is used for prepositional complements as well as for temporal complements not introduced by a preposition.
nmod:poss: possessive nominal modifier
The relation nmod:poss is used for a possessive nominal modifier expressed by a possessive determiner (mon, ton, son, ma, ta, sa, mes, tes, ses, notre, votre, leur, nos, vos, leurs).
nsubj: nominal subject
The dependency type nsubj marks nominal subjects of a clause. Subjects are direct dependents of the main predicate of the clause, which may be a verb, noun or adjective.
nsubjpass: passive nominal subject
A passive nominal subject is a noun phrase which is the syntactic subject of a passive clause.
nummod: numeric modifier
A numeric modifier of a noun is any number phrase that serves to modify the meaning of the noun with a quantity.
Dates are annotated as follows: if present the month is the head, the day is nummod, and the year is nmod
parataxis: parataxis
The parataxis relation (from Greek for “place side by side”) is a relation between the main verb of a clause and other sentential elements, such as a sentential parenthetical, a clause after a “:” or a “;”, or two sentences placed side by side without any explicit coordination or subordination. More information can be found on the universal dependency page (parataxis)
punct: punctuation
This is used for any piece of punctuation in a clause, regardless of its function. The punctuation mark is attached to the head of the phrase or clause to which it belongs unless this introduces a non-projective dependency. More discussion on punctuation can be found on the universal dependency page (punct).
remnant: remnant in ellipsis
The remnant relation is used to analyze cases of ellipsis where there is no function word that can be promoted to take the place of the elided content word. For a full discussion of its use, see the universal dependency description (remnant).
Currently this construction is not correctly annotated in the French treebank.
reparandum: overridden disfluency
The reparandum relation is used to indicate disfluencies overridden in a speech
repair. The disfluency is the dependent of the repair.
Currently this construction is not annotated in the French treebank (but there are probably no attested uses).
root: root
The root grammatical relation points to the root of the sentence. A
fake node ROOT is used as the governor. The ROOT node is indexed
with 0, since the indexing of real words in the sentence starts at 1.
vocative: vocative
The vocative relation is used to mark a dialogue participant addressed in text (common in conversations, emails and newsgroup postings). The relation links the addressee’s name to its host sentence.
Note: the vocative relation is not currently annotated in the French data.
xcomp: open clausal complement
An open clausal complement (xcomp) of a verb or an adjective is a predicative or clausal complement without its own subject. The reference of the subject is necessarily determined by an argument external to the xcomp (normally by the object of the next higher clause, if there is one, or else by the subject of the next higher clause). These complements are always non-finite, and they are complements (arguments of the higher verb or adjective) rather than adjuncts/modifiers. The name xcomp is borrowed from Lexical-Functional Grammar.