Deixis: relative location encoded in demonstratives
| Values: | Abv | Bel | Even | Med | Nvis | Prox | Remt |
Deixis is typically a feature of demonstrative pronouns, determiners, and adverbs. Its value classifies the location of the referred entity with respect to the location of the speaker or of the hearer. The common distinction is distance (proximate vs. remote entities); in some languages, elevation is distinguished as well (e.g., the entity is located higher or lower than the speaker).
If it is necessary to distinguish the person whose location is the reference point (speaker or hearer),
the feature DeixisRef can be used in addition to Deixis. See also the Wolof examples below.
DeixisRef is not needed if all deictic expressions in the language are relative to the same person
(probably the speaker).
Prox: proximate
The entity is close to the reference point (e.g., to the speaker).
Examples
- [en] this dog
- [en] here
- [es] aquí “here”
- [eu] hau “he/she (nearby)”
- [wo] xaj bii “this dog” (close to me, wherever you may be)
Deixis=Prox|DeixisRef=1 - [wo] xaj boobu “that dog / the dog in question” (close to you, far from me)
Deixis=Prox|DeixisRef=2 - [kha] u-ne “he (near)”
Med: medial
The entity is neither close nor far away from the reference point (e.g., from the speaker).
Examples
- [es] ahí “there”
- [eu] hori “he/she (not close)”
- [wo] xaj boobale “that dog” (far away from both of us, but closer to you than to me)
Deixis=Med|DeixisRef=2 - [kha] u-to “he (not near, not far)”
Remt: remote, distal
The entity is far away from the reference point (e.g., from the speaker).
Examples
- [en] that dog
- [en] there
- [es] allí “there”
- [eu] hura “he/she (over there, yonder)”
- [wo] xaj bale “that dog” (far away from me, wherever you may be)
Deixis=Remt|DeixisRef=1 - [kha] u-tay “he (far away, visible)”
Nvis: not visible
The entity is remote and not visible. In Khasi, where this distinction is made, the Remt value
can be used to annotate “remote but visible”.
Examples
- [kha] u-to “he (far away, not visible)”
Abv: above the reference point
Occurs e.g. in Aghul [agx], Lak [lbe], and Khasi [kha]. The entity is both remote from the speaker and above them.
Examples
- [agx] te “that” (remote, elevation-neutral)
- [agx] le “that (above)”
- [lbe] k’a “that (above speaker)”
- [kha] u-tey “he (above)”
Even: at the same level as the reference point
Occurs e.g. in Lak [lbe]. The entity is both remote and at the same level as the speaker.
Examples
- [lbe] ga “that” (Elevation neutral in current usage. In older usage, this pronoun pointed below the reference point.)
- [lbe] ta “that (same level)” (In older usage, ta was the pronoun unmarked for elevation, but in current usage it denotes the same level as the reference point.)
Bel: below the reference point
Occurs e.g. in Aghul [agx] and Khasi [kha]. The entity is both remote from the speaker and below them.
Examples
- [agx] te “that” (remote, elevation-neutral)
- [agx] ge “that (below)”
- [kha] u-thie “he (below)”
Deixis in other languages: [aqz] [bej] [hy] [mpu] [qpm] [u]