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This page pertains to UD version 2.

Valency-Changing Operations

TO DO: This chapter has been created as leftovers from Dan’s original discussion of core vs. oblique. It should be revised.

Coding Strategies

English

Transitive clauses (those that have an object) can be passivized, which means:

  1. Active verb form is replaced by passive (finite auxiliary + participle).
  2. Former object becomes subject.
  3. Former subject either disappears or becomes an oblique argument.
# text = One apple is eaten by the boy.
1	One	one	NUM	_	_	2	nummod	_	_
2	apple	apple	NOUN	_	Number=Sing	4	nsubj:pass	_	_
3	is	be	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	4	aux:pass	_	_
4	eaten	eat	VERB	_	Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	_
5	by	by	ADP	_	_	7	case	_	_
6	the	the	DET	_	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	7	det	_	_
7	boy	boy	NOUN	_	Number=Sing	4	obl:agent	_	SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	4	punct	_	_

The inability to passivize of He works the whole week is an argument in support of the claim that the clause is intransitive and the whole week is an adjunct rather than an object. However, this test is not sufficient because there is a small set of verbs that have objects but do not passivize:

Therefore, durational temporal adjuncts have to be stated as an exception, and this is the one case where the argument/adjunct distinction cannot be avoided in UD.

# text = He works the whole week.
1	He	he	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Person=3|PronType=Prs	2	nsubj	_	_
2	works	work	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	_
3	the	the	DET	_	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	5	det	_	_
4	whole	whole	ADJ	_	_	5	amod	_	_
5	week	week	NOUN	_	Number=Sing	2	obl:tmod	_	SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	_

On the other hand, even temporal noun phrases can be objects if the verb requires an object:

# text = He spent the whole week in Oslo.
1	He	he	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Person=3|PronType=Prs	2	nsubj	_	_
2	spent	spend	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	_
3	the	the	DET	_	Definite=Def|PronType=Art	5	det	_	_
4	whole	whole	ADJ	_	_	5	amod	_	_
5	week	week	NOUN	_	Number=Sing	2	obj	_	_
6	in	in	ADP	_	_	7	case	_	_
7	Oslo	Oslo	PROPN	_	Number=Sing	2	obl	_	SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	_

Joakim: I think word order tests can be used to distinguish these two cases (instead of appealing to the arg/adj distinction):

Dan: In English, yes. But the same adjunct appears in Spanish and Czech too.

Some English verbs allow two objects (i.e., two core arguments following the verb):

The traditional approach outside UD is to call the first object indirect and the second object direct; it is often defined in terms of semantic roles, saying that the recipient is the indirect object. UD avoids referring to semantic roles and says instead that indirect object is a core argument of the verb that is not its subject or direct object; the (direct) object is then defined as “the second most core argument of a verb after the subject.” In the above examples, the recipient (Kate, me) is arguably more core than the theme (book, mathematics) because the recipient can be promoted in passivization while the theme cannot:

The second object can be promoted only if both the subject and the first object are recoded as oblique arguments (in the case of to give) or the first object is removed (in the case of to teach):

Therefore, the UD v2 guidelines actually require that the second object is labeled iobj. Yet in the current English data (UD 2.1), it is still the first object that is labeled iobj, and the second object is obj. This has to be resolved by either modifying the guidelines, or the data (diverging from what people traditionally understand under indirect object).

# text = Peter gave Kate a book.
1	Peter	Peter	PROPN	_	Number=Sing	2	nsubj	_	_
2	gave	give	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	_
3	Kate	Kate	PROPN	_	Number=Sing	2	obj	_	_
4	a	a	DET	_	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	5	det	_	_
5	book	book	NOUN	_	Number=Sing	2	iobj	_	SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	_


# text = Kate was given a book by Peter.
1	Kate	Kate	PROPN	_	Number=Sing	3	nsubj:pass	_	_
2	was	be	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	3	aux:pass	_	_
3	given	give	VERB	_	Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	_
4	a	a	DET	_	Definite=Ind|PronType=Art	5	det	_	_
5	book	book	NOUN	_	Number=Sing	3	iobj	_	_
6	by	by	ADP	_	_	7	case	_	_
7	Peter	Peter	PROPN	_	Number=Sing	3	obl:agent	_	SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	_

Joakim: I don’t think this is specified by the v2 guidelines. I tried to argue for it on GitHub, based on syntactic criteria, but people pushed back saying that it is convenient for NLP applications to have the same relation for the recipient role in both cases. This needs to be resolved.

TO DO: How do we explain that an oblique nominal is annotated as subject in subordinate infinitival clause, as in It was impossible for him to attend the meeting. Some authors (I do not remember where exactly I saw it) say that it is quite common that core arguments are coded differently in subordinate clauses. But can we prove that the for-phrase is indeed a subject? It is not sufficient to say that it has the same semantic role as the corresponding bare nominal in a main finite clause. If it was sufficient, then the by-phrases in passive clauses would be subjects too!

Joakim: We definitely need to allow different coding in subordinate clauses. That is the rule in languages like Latin and Turkish. But I think we should save this for the section on subordinate clauses.

Spanish

The behavior of Spanish core arguments is somewhat similar to English but there are differences. Like in English, it is typical for a core argument to be a bare nominal without preposition. However, prepositions are not completely excluded. If the object is a person, it is marked by the preposition a:

The subject’s person and number is cross-referenced by verbal inflection. Spanish is a pro-drop language, meaning that the subject can be omitted if it is a personal pronoun.

# text = Vimos a alguien.
# text_en = We saw somebody.
1	Vimos	ver	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=1|Tense=Imp|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=we-saw
2	a	a	ADP	_	_	3	case	_	Gloss=OBJ
3	alguien	alguien	PRON	_	Number=Sing|PronType=Ind	1	obj	_	Gloss=somebody|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = El hombre bebe vino.
# text_en = The man drinks wine.
1	El	el	DET	_	Definite=Def|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	2	det	_	Gloss=the
2	hombre	hombre	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=man
3	bebe	beber	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=drinks
4	vino	vino	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=wine|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

If the arguments are realized as personal pronouns, the subject is in the nominative form (yo, tú, él, nosotros, vosotros, ellos) and the object is in the accusative (me, te, lo, nos, os, los). Nouns do not inflect for case in Spanish.

If both core arguments are present and if they are realized as full noun phrases, the prototypical word order is the same as in English: the subject precedes the verb and the object follows it. However, if the object is realized as a pronominal clitic (and if the verb is finite indicative), the object precedes the verb.

# text = El hombre lo bebe.
# text_en = The man drinks it.
1	El	el	DET	_	Definite=Def|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	2	det	_	Gloss=the
2	hombre	hombre	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	4	nsubj	_	Gloss=man
3	lo	él	PRON	_	Case=Acc|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Person=3|PronType=Prs	4	obj	_	Gloss=it
4	bebe	beber	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=drinks|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	4	punct	_	Gloss=.

Transitive clauses (those that have an object) can be passivized.

# text = El vino es bebido por los hombres.
# text_en = The wine is drunk by the men.
1	El	el	DET	_	Definite=Def|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	2	det	_	Gloss=the
2	vino	vino	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	4	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=wine|SpaceAfter=No
3	es	ser	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	4	aux:pass	_	Gloss=is
4	bebido	beber	VERB	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=drunk
5	por	por	ADP	_	_	7	case	_	Gloss=by
6	los	el	DET	_	Definite=Def|Gender=Masc|Number=Plur|PronType=Art	7	det	_	Gloss=the
7	hombres	hombre	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Plur	4	obl:agent	_	Gloss=men|SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	4	punct	_	Gloss=.

Both coding strategies that are used for core arguments can also appear with adjuncts. Bare nominal adjuncts are rare, the exception being durational temporal adjuncts. In contrast, the preposition a can be used with various directional and temporal adjuncts.

# text = Él trabaja toda la semana.
# text_en = He works the whole week.
1	Él	él	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Person=3|PronType=Prs	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=he
2	trabaja	trabajar	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=works
3	toda	todo	DET	_	Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|PronType=Tot	5	det	_	Gloss=all
4	la	el	DET	_	Definite=Def|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=the
5	semana	semana	NOUN	_	Gender=Fem|Number=Sing	2	obl:tmod	_	Gloss=week|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Subiremos al tren a las cinco.
# text_en = We will be boarding the train at five.
1	Subiremos	subir	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Plur|Person=1|Tense=Fut|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=we-will-board
2-3	al	_	_	_	_	_	_	_	_
2	a	a	ADP	_	_	4	case	_	Gloss=on
3	el	el	DET	_	Definite=Def|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	4	det	_	Gloss=the
4	tren	tren	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	1	obl	_	Gloss=train
5	a	a	ADP	_	_	7	case	_	Gloss=at
6	las	el	DET	_	Definite=Def|Gender=Fem|Number=Plur|PronType=Art	7	det	_	Gloss=the
7	cinco	cinco	NUM	_	NumType=Card	1	obl:tmod	_	Gloss=five|SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

Neither toda la semana nor al tren or a las cinco can be promoted via passivization.

Some Spanish verbs allow two objects:

One of the objects typically corresponds to the recipient semantic role and it most likely refers to a person, therefore it will be marked by the preposition a (if it is realized as a full noun phrase). If it is represented by a pronominal clitic, it will be in the dative form (identical with the accusative except for the third person, which is le, les, and does not distinguish gender). It is not uncommon that both the noun phrase and the clitic are present, as in Pedro le dio un libro a Isabel. (this is known as “clitic doubling”).

# text = Pedro le dio un libro a Isabel.
# text_en = Pedro gave Isabel a book.
1	Pedro	Pedro	PROPN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=Pedro
2	le	él	PRON	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing|Person=3|PronType=Prs	3	expl	_	Gloss=her
3	dio	dar	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=gave
4	un	un	DET	_	Definite=Ind|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=a
5	libro	libro	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=book
6	a	a	ADP	_	_	7	case	_	Gloss=to
7	Isabel	Isabel	PROPN	_	Gender=Fem|Number=Sing	3	iobj	_	Gloss=Isabel|SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Pedro le dio un libro.
# text_en = Pedro gave her a book.
1	Pedro	Pedro	PROPN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=Pedro
2	le	él	PRON	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing|Person=3|PronType=Prs	3	iobj	_	Gloss=her
3	dio	dar	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=gave
4	un	un	DET	_	Definite=Ind|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=a
5	libro	libro	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=book|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

The object that is marked by the preposition a or by the dative case of the pronoun (i.e., the one with the recipient role) is labeled as an indirect object; the unmarked/accusative object is direct. This is in line with the UD v2 guidelines: if the clause is passivized, the direct object is promoted to the subject relation, while the indirect object stays untouched. Hence the indirect object is less core than the direct object.

# text = Un libro fue dado a Isabel por Pedro.
# text_en = A book was given to Isabel by Pedro.
1	Un	un	DET	_	Definite=Ind|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|PronType=Art	2	det	_	Gloss=a
2	libro	libro	NOUN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	4	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=book
3	fue	ser	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin	4	aux:pass	_	Gloss=was
4	dado	dar	VERB	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=given
5	a	a	ADP	_	_	6	case	_	Gloss=to
6	Isabel	Isabel	PROPN	_	Gender=Fem|Number=Sing	4	iobj	_	Gloss=Isabel
7	por	por	ADP	_	_	8	case	_	Gloss=by
8	Pedro	Pedro	PROPN	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing	4	obl:agent	_	Gloss=Pedro|SpaceAfter=No
9	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	4	punct	_	Gloss=.

Joakim: Why do we treat the recipient as core in Spanish but not in English when they both have prepositions? Is this because prepositions are found with direct objects in Spanish but not in English? And what would we then do in French, where the recipient takes a prepositions but where prepositions are never used with prepositions? Same as English? It would also be possible (at least in French) to argue for a mixed system, where full noun phrases are oblique (because they take a preposition) but pronouns are core (because they have dative case).

Czech

Classification of verbal arguments in Czech depends on case morphology. There are certain anomalies of the case system when the argument is a quantified phrase (with a cardinal number or a pronominal quantifier, the head noun may have different case than the entire phrase). We exclude quantified phrases from the following overview.

The coding strategy most typical for Czech core arguments is bare noun phrase in nominative or accusative. Some authors claim that core arguments are not marked for case. This is not true and Czech is one of the counter-examples. The nominative can be considered unmarked in the vague sense that it is the default case that is used if there are no external factors requiring another case. However, it is not unmarked in the morphological sense: many nouns must use suffixes to form the nominative (and the same holds for the accusative).

The nominative argument is the subject, the accusative is object. The subject’s person, number, and sometimes also gender and animacy are cross-referenced by verbal inflection. Czech is a pro-drop language, meaning that the subject can be omitted if it is a personal pronoun.

# text = Chlapec snědl jablko.
# text_en = The boy ate an apple.
1	Chlapec	chlapec	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=boy
2	snědl	sníst	VERB	_	Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=eaten
3	jablko	jablko	NOUN	_	Case=Acc|Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	obj	_	Gloss=apple|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	_

Czech word order is free and while the SVO order is preferred by default, other permutations are possible and may be required to distinguish topic and focus.

Transitive clauses (those that have an accusative object) can be passivized.

# text = Jablko bylo snědeno chlapcem.
# text_en = The apple was eaten by the boy.
1	Jablko	jablko	NOUN	_	Case=Nom|Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=apple
2	bylo	být	AUX	_	Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	3	aux:pass	_	Gloss=was
3	snědeno	snědený	ADJ	_	Case=Nom|Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Variant=Short|VerbForm=Part|Voice=Pass	0	root	_	Gloss=eaten
4	chlapcem	chlapec	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Ins|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	obl:agent	_	Gloss=by-boy|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

There are a few verbs with accusative objects that cannot passivize, for instance:

It is not guaranteed that a bare accusative nominal is a core argument. It can also be a durational temporal adjunct, as in:

# text = Pracuje celý týden.
# text_en = He works the whole week.
1	Pracuje	pracovat	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Polarity=Pos|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=works
2	celý	celý	ADJ	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Acc|Degree=Pos|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	amod	_	Gloss=whole
3	týden	týden	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Acc|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	1	obl:tmod	_	Gloss=week|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

The nominal celý týden cannot be promoted to subject via passivization, which supports the claim that it is not an object; however, this test is not sufficient because of the exceptional verbs like dostat “to get” and mít “to have”. Therefore, durational temporal adjuncts have to be stated as an exception and the argument/adjunct distinction cannot be avoided in this case.

Many two-argument verbs in Czech specify the second argument as a bare noun phrase in a case other than accusative. Whether these arguments are core arguments is a point of disagreement among different authors. The current (UD 2.1) approach in UD for Czech and several similar Indo-European languages is to analyze them as core.

Some of the verbs resemble prototypical transitive verbs in that their arguments have the roles of agent and patient. For instance, the verb pomoci “to help” takes a dative argument:

The clause can be passivized. However, the dative argument is not promoted by the passivization to the subject relation. It stays in dative and the verb does not cross-reference its person, number or gender. Instead, verbal morphology switches to the default singular neuter agreement with unexpressed subject. This suggests that the dative argument is less core-like (if at all) than a standard accusative object.

# text = Zuzka pomohla Martinovi s domácím úkolem.
# text_en = Zuzka helped Martin with his homework.
1	Zuzka	Zuzka	PROPN	_	Case=Nom|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=Zuzka
2	pomohla	pomoci	VERB	_	Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=helped
3	Martinovi	Martin	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Dat|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	obj	_	Gloss=Martin
4	s	s	ADP	_	_	6	case	_	Gloss=with
5	domácím	domácí	ADJ	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Ins|Degree=Pos|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	6	amod	_	Gloss=home
6	úkolem	úkol	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Ins|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	obl:arg	_	Gloss=work|SpaceAfter=No
7	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Martinovi bylo pomoženo s domácím úkolem.
# text_en = Martin was helped with his homework.
1	Martinovi	Martin	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Dat|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	obj	_	Gloss=Martin
2	bylo	být	AUX	_	Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	3	aux:pass	_	Gloss=was
3	pomoženo	pomožený	ADJ	_	Gender=Neut|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Variant=Short|VerbForm=Part|Voice=Pass	0	root	_	Gloss=helped
4	s	s	ADP	_	_	6	case	_	Gloss=with
5	domácím	domácí	ADJ	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Ins|Degree=Pos|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	6	amod	_	Gloss=home
6	úkolem	úkol	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Ins|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	obl:arg	_	Gloss=work|SpaceAfter=No
7	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

If dative arguments are core objects, then we may want to distinguish them from benefactive adjuncts that are also encoded as bare nominals in the dative (that is, if we acknowledge that benefactives should be adjuncts):

Joakim: If benefactives and datives have the same encoding, perhaps they should both be regarded as oblique (to facilitate annotation).

Similarly, there are objects realized as bare genitives and even instrumentals, with the same passivization pattern as datives. Instrumental objects have to be distinguished from demoted oblique agents in passive constructions, and from instrumental adjuncts.

The Czech grammar also recognizes prepositional objects but we do not consider them core (which means they are not objects in UD). In fact, the definition of object in the Czech grammar is identical with argument and leads to the argument/adjunct distinction, disfavored in UD. Most adjuncts are prepositional phrases, thus the bulk of the decisions would have to be done for prepositional phrases; that is the main reason why bare datives are analyzed as core objects while prepositional phrases are not. It is worth noting that the neuter singular passivization that is described above for bare datives, genitives and instrumentals is also available for prepositional phrases and even for some intransitive verbs, although such constructions are rare:

Some Czech verbs allow two objects. Typically, one object is accusative and the other is dative; nevertheless, some other combinations are possible, too.

The dative-accusative construction can be passivized so that the accusative object is promoted to subject, the dative object stays as it is, and the former subject disappears (or, rarely, is transformed to instrumental). It is thus confirmed that the dative object is less core than the accusative, hence the dative should be labeled as indirect.

The verb učit “to teach” is special in that it allows two accusatives: one representing the theme (mathematics) and the other the recipient (me). Either one can be omitted and then we have a normal transitive clause with an accusative object that can be promoted via passivization. However, if both arguments are present in the active clause, it is not possible to promote one of them and leave the other untouched; the grammar does not tolerate a bare accusative argument in a passive clause. Also note that there is a slightly archaic alternative where the theme (not the recipient!) takes the dative form. Here the passive might in theory be available but it still sounds clumsy.

There thus does not seem to be any evidence that one of the accusatives is more core than the other. We have an example of a clause with two objects, neither of which is indirect.

Finally, in the dative-instrumental construction, the passivization follows rules similar to clauses with one non-accusative object: former subject disappears but the objects stay untouched. Moreover, if the subject is not removed but transformed to an instrumental argument, it is likely that the original instrumental argument will be removed instead. Yet it is not completely ungrammatical to keep them both (see the example below; but it is highly preferred that the two instrumental arguments are not adjacent).

The dative-instrumental construction is one where both objects are clearly less core than accusative objects, but none of the two is more or less core than the other. Therefore, none of them can be labeled as indirect.

# text = Petr dal Katce knihu.
# text_en = Petr gave Katka a book.
1	Petr	Petr	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=Petr
2	dal	dát	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=gave
3	Katce	Katka	PROPN	_	Case=Dat|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	iobj	_	Gloss=to-Katka
4	knihu	kniha	NOUN	_	Case=Acc|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	2	obj	_	Gloss=book|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Kniha byla dána Katce Petrem.
# text_en = The book was given to Katka by Petr.
1	Kniha	kniha	NOUN	_	Case=Nom|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=book
2	byla	být	AUX	_	Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Part	3	aux:pass	_	Gloss=was
3	dána	daný	ADJ	_	Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos|Variant=Short|VerbForm=Part|Voice=Pass	0	root	_	Gloss=given
4	Katce	Katka	PROPN	_	Case=Dat|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	iobj	_	Gloss=to-Katka
5	Petrem	Petr	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Ins|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	obl:agent	_	Gloss=by-Petr|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Tomáš mě učí matematiku.
# text_en = Tomáš teaches me mathematics.
1	Tomáš	Tomáš	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Nom|Gender=Masc|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=Tomáš
2	mě	já	PRON	_	Case=Acc|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs|Variant=Short	3	obj	_	Gloss=me
3	učí	učit	VERB	_	Mood=Ind|Number=Sing|Person=3|Polarity=Pos|Tense=Pres|VerbForm=Fin	0	root	_	Gloss=teaches
4	matematiku	matematika	NOUN	_	Case=Acc|Gender=Fem|Number=Sing|Polarity=Pos	3	obj	_	Gloss=mathematics|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

Basque

See also: Fernando Zúñiga, Beatriz Fernández (draft 26.6.2014): Grammatical relations in Basque

In Basque, like in Czech, nominal case morphology is essential for recognition of core argument relations. However, instead of nominative-accusative, the core pair of cases in Basque is ergative-absolutive. Most two-argument verbs have one argument in the ergative and the other in the absolutive case (but see below for other possibilities). The ergative argument is labeled as subject, the absolutive argument is object. With primary transitive verbs, the ergative argument corresponds to the agent and the absolutive argument to the patient.

# text = Ekaitzak itsasontzia hondoratu du.
# text_en = The storm has sunk the ship.
1	Ekaitzak	ekaitz	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Erg|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=storm
2	itsasontzia	itsasontzi	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=ship
3	hondoratu	hondoratu	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=sunk
4	du	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[erg]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[erg]=3|VerbForm=Fin	3	aux	_	Gloss=has|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

The single argument of intransitive verbs takes mostly the absolutive but sometimes the ergative form. It is labeled as subject in both cases.

# text = Gizona hil da.
# text_en = The man has died.
1	Gizona	gizon	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=the-man
2	hil	hil	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=died
3	da	izan	AUX	_	Aspect=Prog|Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|VerbForm=Fin	2	aux	_	Gloss=has|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Urak irakin du.
# text_en = The water has boiled.
1	Urak	ura	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Erg|Definite=Ind|Number=Sing	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=water
2	irakin	irakin	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=boiled
3	du	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[erg]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[erg]=3|VerbForm=Fin	2	aux	_	Gloss=has|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.

The third core case is the dative. Arguments in all three core cases are cross-referenced on finite verbs. Thanks to cross-referencing, the arguments can be omitted if they are just personal pronouns.

Some two-argument verbs take dative+absolutive, instead of ergative+absolutive:

# text = Niri ardoa gustatzen zait.
# text_en = I like wine.
1	Niri	ni	PRON	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=to-me
2	ardoa	ardo	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=wine
3	gustatzen	gustatzen	VERB	_	Aspect=Imp|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=pleasing
4	zait	izan	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[dat]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[dat]=1|VerbForm=Fin	3	aux	_	Gloss=is|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

In the current data (UD 2.1), the dative argument seems to be labeled iobj even in dative-absolutive constructions. However, Zúñiga and Fernández (2014) write that the dative encodes the A function in such constructions; that would mean that it should be nsubj.

Some two-argument verbs take ergative+dative, instead of ergative+absolutive:

# text = Irakasleak haserre begiratu die ikasleei
# text_en = The teacher has looked angrily at the students.
1	Irakasleak	irakasle	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Erg|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=the-teacher
2	haserre	haserre	ADV	_	_	3	advmod	_	Gloss=angrily
3	begiratu	begiratu	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=looked
4	die	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[dat]=Plur|Number[erg]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[dat]=3|Person[erg]=3|VerbForm=Fin	3	aux	_	Gloss=has
5	ikasleei	ikasle	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Dat|Definite=Def|Number=Plur	3	obj	_	Gloss=to-students|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

In the current data (UD 2.1), the dative argument seems to be labeled iobj even in ergative-dative constructions. However, Zúñiga and Fernández (2014) write that the dative encodes the P function in such constructions; that would mean that it should be obj.

There are verbs that take all three core arguments. In such constructions, the ergative encodes the A function, absolutive the P function (also T function = theme-like), and dative the G function (goal). In terms of dependency relations, it seems reasonable to label the ergative as nsubj, absolutive as obj and dative as iobj just to distinguish them and to acknowledge that absolutives and ergatives are more frequent than datives; though the grammar does not seem to target the absolutive argument in specific rules, which would make it more core-like than the dative.

# text = Nik zuri liburua eman dizut.
# text_en = I have given you a book.
1	Nik	ni	PRON	_	Case=Erg|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	4	nsubj	_	Gloss=I
2	zuri	zu	PRON	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing|Person=2|PronType=Prs	4	iobj	_	Gloss=you
3	liburua	liburu	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	4	obj	_	Gloss=book
4	eman	eman	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=given
5	dizut	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[dat]=Sing|Number[erg]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[dat]=2|Person[erg]=1|VerbForm=Fin	4	aux	_	Gloss=have|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	4	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = test-s452
# text = Zezenak saihetsa pitzatu zidan.
# text_en = The bull cracked my rib.
1	Zezenak	zezen	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Erg|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=bull
2	saihetsa	saihets	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=rib
3	pitzatu	pitzatu	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=cracked
4	zidan	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[dat]=Sing|Number[erg]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[dat]=1|Person[erg]=3|VerbForm=Fin	3	aux	_	Gloss=has-to-me|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

Basque does not have a canonical passive construction, although there are constructions that have been called passive by some authors in the past.

While the passive, if it existed, would decrease the valency of the verb, there is another operation that increases the valency: the causative:

  1. Active verb form is replaced by causative.
  2. Former subject becomes dative object and denotes the causee.
  3. A new ergative subject appears and denotes the causer.

Analogically to the passive, it is recommended that the relations with modified interpretation (if overtly present) are labeled as subtypes: the causer as nsubj:caus and the true agent as iobj:agent.

# text = Guk arazo hau ikusi genuen.
# text_en = We have seen this problem.
1	Guk	gu	PRON	_	Case=Erg|Number=Plur|Person=1|PronType=Prs	4	nsubj	_	Gloss=we
2	arazo	arazo	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Ind|Number=Sing	4	obj	_	Gloss=problem
3	hau	hau	DET	_	Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing|PronType=Dem	2	det	_	Gloss=this
4	ikusi	ikusi	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=seen
5	genuen	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[erg]=Plur|Person[abs]=3|Person[erg]=1|VerbForm=Fin	4	aux	_	Gloss=have|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	4	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Horiek guri arazo hau ikuserazi digute.
# text_en = They have made us see this problem.
1	Horiek	horiek	DET	_	Case=Erg|Definite=Def|Number=Plur|PronType=Dem	5	nsubj:caus	_	Gloss=they
2	guri	gu	PRON	_	Case=Dat|Number=Plur|Person=1|PronType=Prs	5	iobj:agent	_	Gloss=us
3	arazo	arazo	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Ind|Number=Sing	5	obj	_	Gloss=problem
4	hau	hau	DET	_	Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing|PronType=Dem	3	det	_	Gloss=this
5	ikuserazi	ikusi	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|VerbForm=Part|Voice=Cau	0	root	_	Gloss=made-to-see
6	digute	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[dat]=Plur|Number[erg]=Plur|Person[abs]=3|Person[dat]=1|Person[erg]=3|VerbForm=Fin	5	aux	_	Gloss=have|SpaceAfter=No
7	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	5	punct	_	Gloss=.

Joakim: I think it might be better to use “nsubj:caus” and “iobj:caus”, indicating that these are arguments of a causative and therefore do not have the expected role but without specifying the role (cause and agent). This is more parallel with “nsubj:pass”, where we just indicate that it is the subject of a passive and therefore has an unexpected role but without specifying what the role is.

The fact that the causative is available for dative-absolutive verbs supports the claim that the dative argument indeed is the subject in active voice of those verbs.

# text = Zopa izugarri gustatzen zaio mutilari.
# text_en = The boy likes the soup a lot.
1	Zopa	zopa	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=soup
2	izugarri	izugarri	ADV	_	_	3	advmod	_	Gloss=greatly
3	gustatzen	gustatzen	VERB	_	Aspect=Imp|VerbForm=Part	0	root	_	Gloss=pleasing
4	zaio	izan	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[dat]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[dat]=3|VerbForm=Fin	3	aux	_	Gloss=is
5	mutilari	mutil	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Dat|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=to-the-boy|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Goseak zopa hori izugarri gustatuerazi zion mutilari.
# text_en = Hunger made the boy like that soup a lot.
1	Goseak	gose	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Erg|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	5	nsubj:caus	_	Gloss=hunger
2	zopa	zopa	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	5	obj	_	Gloss=soup
3	hori	hori	DET	_	Case=Abs|Definite=Def|Number=Sing|PronType=Dem	2	det	_	Gloss=that
4	izugarri	izugarri	ADV	_	_	5	advmod	_	Gloss=greatly
5	gustatuerazi	gustatzen	VERB	_	Aspect=Imp|VerbForm=Part|Voice=Cau	0	root	_	Gloss=made-pleasing
6	zion	*edun	AUX	_	Mood=Ind|Number[abs]=Sing|Number[dat]=Sing|Number[erg]=Sing|Person[abs]=3|Person[dat]=3|Person[erg]=3|VerbForm=Fin	5	aux	_	Gloss=has
7	mutilari	mutil	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Case=Dat|Definite=Def|Number=Sing	5	iobj:agent	_	Gloss=the-boy|SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	5	punct	_	Gloss=.

Causative is only marginally accepted with ditransitive verbs, apparently due to the marginal acceptance of two dative-marked arguments in the same clause.

Yidiɲ

See also:

Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia) has a combination of the ergative-absolutive system (similar to Basque) and the nominative-accusative system (similar to Czech). The former pair is typical for nouns, the latter for pronouns.

# sent_id = 3.98a/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu maŋga:ɲ.
# gloss = I(NOM) laugh-PAST
# text_en = I laughed.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	maŋga:ɲ	maŋgan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=laughed|MSeg=maŋga:-ɲ|MGloss=laugh-PAST|SpaceAfter=No
3	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.98b/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Buɲa maŋga:ɲ.
# gloss = woman(ABS) laugh-PAST
# text_en = The woman laughed.
1	Buɲa	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Abs|Number=Sing	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=woman|MGloss=woman(ABS)
2	maŋga:ɲ	maŋgan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=laughed|MSeg=maŋga:-ɲ|MGloss=laugh-PAST|SpaceAfter=No
3	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.98c/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋaɲaɲ buɲa:ŋ wuɹa:ɲ.
# gloss = I(ACC) woman-ERG slap-PAST
# text_en = The woman slapped me.
1	Ŋaɲaɲ	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Acc|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	3	obj	_	Gloss=me|MGloss=I(ACC)
2	buɲa:ŋ	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Erg|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-ŋ|MGloss=woman-ERG
3	wuɹa:ɲ	wuɹan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɲ|MGloss=slap-PAST|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.98d/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu buɲa wuɹa:ɲ.
# gloss = I(NOM) woman(ABS) slap-PAST
# text_en = I slapped the woman.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	buɲa	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Abs|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=woman|MGloss=woman(ABS)
3	wuɹa:ɲ	wuɹan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɲ|MGloss=slap-PAST|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.98e/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Waguɖaŋgu guda:ga wawa:l.
# gloss = man-ERG dog(ABS) see-PAST
# text_en = The man saw the dog.
1	Waguɖaŋgu	wagu:ɖa	NOUN	_	Case=Erg|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=man|MSeg=Waguɖa-ŋgu|MGloss=man-ERG
2	guda:ga	guda:ga	NOUN	_	Case=Abs|Number=Sing	3	obj	_	Gloss=dog|MGloss=dog(ABS)
3	wawa:l	wawal	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=saw|MSeg=wawa:-l|MGloss=see-PAST|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

There is a type of subordinate clause that is called dative subordinate (datsub) because its head verb takes a subjunctive suffix similar to the dative suffix of nouns. The clause may be analyzed as a relative clause dependent on a noun phrase in the main clause. The coreferential noun phrase in the subordinate clause may be elided. There is a near requirement (with some exceptions) that the coreferential nominal has S/P function in both clauses, i.e., it is the subject of an intransitive predicate or the object of a transitive predicate:

# sent_id = 3.99aa/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu maŋga:ɲ ŋaɲaɲ buɲa:n wuɹa:ɲunda.
# gloss = I(NOM) laugh-PAST I-ACC woman-ERG slap-DATSUB
# text_en = I, who was slapped by the woman, laughed.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	maŋga:ɲ	maŋgan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=laughed|MSeg=maŋga:-ɲ|MGloss=laugh-PAST
3	ŋaɲaɲ	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Acc|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	5	obj	_	Gloss=me|MGloss=I(ACC)
4	buɲa:ŋ	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Erg|Number=Sing	5	nsubj	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-n|MGloss=woman-ERG
5	wuɹa:ɲunda	wuɹan	VERB	_	Mood=Sub	1	acl:datsub	_	Gloss=slapping|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɲunda|MGloss=slap-DATSUB|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.99ba/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋaɲaɲ buɲa:ŋ wuɹa:ɲ ŋayu maŋga:ɲunda.
# gloss = I-ACC woman-ERG slap-PAST I(NOM) laugh-DATSUB
# text_en = I, who was laughing, was slapped by the woman.
1	Ŋaɲaɲ	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Acc|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	3	obj	_	Gloss=me|MGloss=I(ACC)
2	buɲa:ŋ	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Erg|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-ŋ|MGloss=woman-ERG
3	wuɹa:ɲ	wuɹan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa-ɲ|MGloss=slap-PAST
4	ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	5	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
5	maŋga:ɲunda	maŋgan	VERB	_	Mood=Sub	1	acl:datsub	_	Gloss=laughing|MSeg=maŋga-ɲunda|MGloss=laugh-DATSUB|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

If we want to use this construction for a nominal with A function (i.e., the subject of a transitive predicate) in either of the two clauses, we must first transform the clause to antipassive, which means:

  1. Active verb form is replaced by antipassive.
  2. Former object is transformed to the dative or locative case and becomes oblique argument.
  3. The subject is still subject, but now of an intransitive predicate. Its function changed from A to S.

Analogically to the passive, we may want to use a relation subtype for the demoted object: obl:patient.

# sent_id = 3.100aa/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Wagu:ɖa gudaganda wawa:ɖiɲu.
# gloss = man(ABS) dog-DAT see-ANTIPASS-PAST
# text_en = The man saw the dog.
1	Wagu:ɖa	wagu:ɖa	NOUN	_	Case=Abs|Number=Sing	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=man|MGloss=man(ABS)
2	gudaganda	guda:ga	NOUN	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing	3	obl:patient	_	Gloss=dog|MSeg=gudaga-nda|MGloss=dog-DAT
3	wawa:ɖiɲu	wawal	VERB	_	Tense=Past|Voice=Antip	0	root	_	Gloss=saw|MSeg=wawa:-ɖi-ɲu|MGloss=see-ANTIPASS-PAST|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.100b/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu buɲa:nda wuɹa:ɖiɲu.
# gloss = I(NOM) woman-DAT slap-ANTIPASS-PAST
# text_en = I slapped the woman.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	buɲa:nda	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing	3	obl:patient	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-nda|MGloss=woman-DAT
3	wuɹa:ɖiɲu	wuɹan	VERB	_	Tense=Past|Voice=Antip	0	root	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɖi-ɲu|MGloss=slap-ANTIPASS-PAST|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

It is now possible to combine clauses so that the subject of an originally transitive (now intransitive) predicate is coreferential:

# sent_id = 3.101aa/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu maŋga:ɲ ŋayu buɲa:nda wuɹa:ɖiɲunda.
# gloss = I(NOM) laugh-PAST I(NOM) woman-DAT slap-ANTIPASS-DATSUB
# text_en = I, who was slapping the woman, laughed; I laughed while slapping the woman.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	maŋga:ɲ	maŋgan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=laughed|MSeg=maŋga:-ɲ|MGloss=laugh-PAST
3	ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	5	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
4	buɲa:nda	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing	5	obl:patient	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-nda|MGloss=woman-DAT
5	wuɹa:ɖiɲunda	wuɹan	VERB	_	Mood=Sub|Voice=Antip	1	acl:datsub	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɖi-ɲunda|MGloss=slap-ANTIPASS-DATSUB|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.101ba/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu buɲa:nda wuɹa:ɖiɲu ŋayu maŋgaɲunda.
# gloss = I(NOM) woman-DAT slap-ANTIPASS-PAST I(NOM) laugh-DATSUB
# text_en = I, who was laughing, slapped the woman; I slapped the woman while laughing.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	buɲa:nda	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing	3	obl:patient	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-nda|MGloss=woman-DAT
3	wuɹa:ɖiɲu	wuɹan	VERB	_	Tense=Past|Voice=Antip	0	root	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɖi-ɲu|MGloss=slap-ANTIPASS-PAST
4	ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	5	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
5	maŋgaɲunda	maŋgan	VERB	_	Mood=Sub	1	acl:datsub	_	Gloss=laughed|MSeg=maŋga-ɲunda|MGloss=laugh-DATSUB|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

Andrews notes that besides the relative clause analysis, these sentences can be also interpreted adverbially. The core-oblique distinction and the antipassive stay the same but the UD trees change:

# sent_id = 3.101aa/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu maŋga:ɲ ŋayu buɲa:nda wuɹa:ɖiɲunda.
# gloss = I(NOM) laugh-PAST I(NOM) woman-DAT slap-ANTIPASS-DATSUB
# text_en = I, who was slapping the woman, laughed; I laughed while slapping the woman.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	maŋga:ɲ	maŋgan	VERB	_	Tense=Past	0	root	_	Gloss=laughed|MSeg=maŋga:-ɲ|MGloss=laugh-PAST
3	ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	5	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
4	buɲa:nda	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing	5	obl:patient	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-nda|MGloss=woman-DAT
5	wuɹa:ɖiɲunda	wuɹan	VERB	_	Mood=Sub|Voice=Antip	2	advcl:datsub	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɖi-ɲunda|MGloss=slap-ANTIPASS-DATSUB|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.101ba/yii
# Yidiɲ (Pama-Nyungan, Australia)
# source = Dixon, 1977
# text = Ŋayu buɲa:nda wuɹa:ɖiɲu ŋayu maŋgaɲunda.
# gloss = I(NOM) woman-DAT slap-ANTIPASS-PAST I(NOM) laugh-DATSUB
# text_en = I, who was laughing, slapped the woman; I slapped the woman while laughing.
1	Ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	3	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
2	buɲa:nda	buɲa	NOUN	_	Case=Dat|Number=Sing	3	obl:patient	_	Gloss=woman|MSeg=buɲa:-nda|MGloss=woman-DAT
3	wuɹa:ɖiɲu	wuɹan	VERB	_	Tense=Past|Voice=Antip	0	root	_	Gloss=slapped|MSeg=wuɹa:-ɖi-ɲu|MGloss=slap-ANTIPASS-PAST
4	ŋayu	ŋayu	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	5	nsubj	_	Gloss=I|MGloss=I(NOM)
5	maŋgaɲunda	maŋgan	VERB	_	Mood=Sub	3	advcl:datsub	_	Gloss=laughed|MSeg=maŋga-ɲunda|MGloss=laugh-DATSUB|SpaceAfter=No
6	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	3	punct	_	Gloss=.

Tagalog

Tagalog is a representative of a subset of Austronesian languages that have been described as symmetric-voice languages. There is an agent voice, where the most core argument corresponds to the agent role, and a patient voice, where the most core argument corresponds to the patient. It is tempting to reuse our labels of active and passive for these voices. There are at least two important differences from what these terms mean in Indo-European languages, though. First, the two voices in Tagalog are more symmetric and it is hard to say that the active is default, unmarked, and the passive is marked. The passive is not morphologically more complex than the passive. Both the agent and the patient regularly appear in both voices. They are coded differently, but both are coded as core, not oblique arguments. Both “active” and “passive” clauses thus can be transitive.

The second difference is that there are more voices than the agent-oriented and the patient-oriented one. There is also a voice that fronts a locational argument, for example.

The arguments are marked by function words that could be analyzed as either prepositions, or case-bearing determiners. Although adpositions are often associated with oblique arguments and adjuncts, we have seen that it is not a universal rule. Spanish marks a human direct object with the preposition a; Slavic and other languages have prepositional object that, despite not being considered core in UD, seem to work the same way as other non-accusative (but preposition-less, and currently core) arguments; and in Japanese, all arguments are marked by postpositions, including the subject and the direct object. On the other hand, if the nominal markers in Tagalog are determiners, then Tagalog somewhat resembles modern German, where nominal inflection has been greatly reduced and the varying forms of determiners are often the only clue about the case of a noun phrase. Categorizing the Tagalog markers as determiners seems to be more favored in the literature.

The most core-like argument (also called pivot) is marked by the determiner ang. The other core argument (if any) is marked by the determiner ng (pronounced nang). A different set of determiners is used with proper nouns. No determiners are used with personal pronouns, but the pronouns themselves inflect for case.

There have been disputes about whether the pivot is subject and whether Tagalog has a subject at all. Nevertheless, there does not seem to be any better solution than to simply identify it with the subject in UD. EDIT: Further discussion is needed. Andrews cites others and says (below examples 124) that both ang and ng arguments are core, but the actor is more subject-like regardless of whether it is pivot or not. That would mean that we should use the nsubj relation for the ang argument of agent-voice verbs, the ng argument of patient-voice verbs, and we would have to select one of two ng arguments in other voices, depending on which argument semantically fits the agent role. It seems appropriate to mark the determiners and the personal pronouns with the Case feature: the pivot with nominative, and the other core argument with accusative.

# sent_id = 1.98d/tl
# text = Nagsalita ka.
# gloss = (PERF.ACTIVE)speak you
# text_en = You spoke.
1	Nagsalita	salita	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Agf	0	root	_	Gloss=spoke|MSeg=nag-salita|MGloss=PERF+ACTIVE-speak
2	ka	ikaw	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=2|PronType=Prs	1	nsubj	_	Gloss=you|SpaceAfter=No
3	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=punct


# sent_id = 1.98f/tl
# text = Natalisod ka.
# gloss = (PERF.INVOL)trip you
# text_en = You tripped.
1	Natalisod	tisod	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Paf	0	root	_	Gloss=tripped|MSeg=na-talisod|MGloss=PERF+INVOL-trip
2	ka	ikaw	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=2|PronType=Prs	1	nsubj	_	Gloss=you|SpaceAfter=No
3	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=punct


# text = Natalisod ang babae.
# text_en = The woman tripped.
1	Natalisod	tisod	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Paf	0	root	_	Gloss=tripped|MSeg=na-talisod|MGloss=PERF+INVOL-trip
2	ang	ang	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	3	det	_	Gloss=the|MGloss=PIV
3	babae	babae	NOUN	_	_	1	nsubj	_	Gloss=woman|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=punct


# text = Natalisod si Pedro.
# text_en = Pedro tripped.
1	Natalisod	tisod	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Paf	0	root	_	Gloss=tripped|MSeg=na-talisod|MGloss=PERF+INVOL-trip
2	si	si	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	3	det	_	Gloss=the
3	Pedro	Pedro	PROPN	_	_	1	nsubj	_	Gloss=Pedro|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=punct

Transitive (two-argument) sentences have two core arguments, one in the nominative (pronoun or determiner) and the other in the accusative. We may want to use relation subtypes for the arguments in the patient voice (similarly to what we do in the English passive): nsubj:pass for the subject and obj:agent (not obl:agent!) for the object. However, the subtypes should not be taken to suggest that the agent voice is default and unmarked.

# text = Naglilinis siya ng bahay.
# text_en = She cleans the house.
1	Naglilinis	linis	VERB	_	Aspect=Imp|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Agf	0	root	_	Gloss=cleans
2	siya	siya	PRON	_	Case=Nom|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	1	nsubj	_	Gloss=he/she
3	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	4	det	_	Gloss=DET
4	bahay	bahay	NOUN	_	_	1	obj	_	Gloss=house|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=punct


# text = Nililinis niya ang bahay.
# text_en = She cleans the house. / The house is cleaned by her.
1	Nililinis	linis	VERB	_	Aspect=Imp|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Paf	0	root	_	Gloss=cleans
2	niya	siya	PRON	_	Case=Acc|Number=Sing|Person=1|PronType=Prs	1	obj:agent	_	Gloss=he/she
3	ang	ang	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	4	det	_	Gloss=the
4	bahay	bahay	NOUN	_	_	1	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=house|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=punct

Locative, directional and benefactive arguments are normally coded as oblique. However, there are additional voices where these arguments become subjects. One of the reasons why an argument is fronted as the subject is that the subject is understood as the topic of the sentence. The ang determiner implies definiteness (while ng-marked arguments can be definite or indefinite). Here is an example of a sentence in four different voices:

# sent_id = 3.111a/tl
# text = Magaalis ang babae ng bigas sa sako para sa bata.
# gloss = AP-FUT-take.out PIV woman OBJ rice DIR sack for BEN child
# text_en = The woman will take some rice out of a/the sack for a/the child.
# AP = actor pivot; PIV = pivot marker
# http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Tagalog/tagalog_verbs.htm
1	Magaalis	alis	VERB	_	Aspect=Prog|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Agf	0	root	_	Gloss=will-take-out|MSeg=mag-a-alis|MGloss=AP-FUT-take.out
2	ang	ang	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	3	det	_	Gloss=the
3	babae	babae	NOUN	_	_	1	nsubj	_	Gloss=woman
4	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=DET
5	bigas	bigas	NOUN	_	_	1	obj	_	Gloss=rice
6	sa	sa	DET	_	Case=Loc|PronType=Art	7	det	_	Gloss=DIR
7	sako	sako	NOUN	_	_	1	obl	_	Gloss=sack
8	para	para	ADP	_	_	10	case	_	Gloss=for
9	sa	sa	DET	_	Case=Loc|PronType=Art	10	det	_	Gloss=BEN
10	bata	bata	NOUN	_	_	1	obl	_	Gloss=child|SpaceAfter=No
11	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.111b/tl
# text = Aalisin ng babae ang bigas sa sako para sa bata.
# gloss = FUT-take.out-OP ACT woman PIV rice DIR sack for BEN child
# text_en = A/the woman will take the rice out of a/the sack for a/the child.
# OP = object pivot; PIV = pivot marker
1	Aalisin	alis	VERB	_	Aspect=Prog|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Paf	0	root	_	Gloss=will-take-out|MSeg=a-alis-in|MGloss=FUT-take.out-OP
2	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	3	det	_	Gloss=DET
3	babae	babae	NOUN	_	_	1	obj:agent	_	Gloss=woman
4	ang	ang	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=the
5	bigas	bigas	NOUN	_	_	1	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=rice
6	sa	sa	DET	_	Case=Loc|PronType=Art	7	det	_	Gloss=DIR
7	sako	sako	NOUN	_	_	1	obl	_	Gloss=sack
8	para	para	ADP	_	_	10	case	_	Gloss=for
9	sa	sa	DET	_	Case=Loc|PronType=Art	10	det	_	Gloss=BEN
10	bata	bata	NOUN	_	_	1	obl	_	Gloss=child|SpaceAfter=No
11	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.111c/tl
# text = Aalisan ng babae ng bigas ang sako para sa bata.
# gloss = FUT-take.out-DP ACT woman OBJ rice PIV sack BEN child
# text_en = A/the woman will take some rice out of the sack for a/the child.
# DP = directional pivot; PIV = pivot marker
1	Aalisan	alis	VERB	_	Aspect=Prog|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Locf	0	root	_	Gloss=will-take-out|MSeg=a-alis-an|MGloss=FUT-take.out-DP
2	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	3	det	_	Gloss=DET
3	babae	babae	NOUN	_	_	1	obj:agent	_	Gloss=woman
4	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=DET
5	bigas	bigas	NOUN	_	_	1	obj:patient	_	Gloss=rice
6	ang	ang	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	7	det	_	Gloss=the
7	sako	sako	NOUN	_	_	1	nsubj:loc	_	Gloss=sack
8	para	para	ADP	_	_	10	case	_	Gloss=for
9	sa	sa	DET	_	Case=Loc|PronType=Art	10	det	_	Gloss=BEN
10	bata	bata	NOUN	_	_	1	obl	_	Gloss=child|SpaceAfter=No
11	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.


# sent_id = 3.111d/tl
# text = Ipagaalis ng babae ng bigas sa sako ang bata.
# gloss = BP-FUT-take.out ACT woman OBJ rice DIR sack PIV child
# text_en = A/the woman will take some rice out of a/the sack for the child.
# BP = benefactive pivot; PIV = pivot marker
1	Ipagaalis	alis	VERB	_	Aspect=Prog|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Benf	0	root	_	Gloss=will-take-out|MSeg=Ipag-a-alis|MGloss=BP-FUT-take.out
2	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	3	det	_	Gloss=DET
3	babae	babae	NOUN	_	_	1	obj:agent	_	Gloss=woman
4	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=DET
5	bigas	bigas	NOUN	_	_	1	obj:patient	_	Gloss=rice
6	sa	sa	DET	_	Case=Loc|PronType=Art	7	det	_	Gloss=DIR
7	sako	sako	NOUN	_	_	1	obl	_	Gloss=sack
8	ang	ang	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	9	det	_	Gloss=the
9	bata	bata	NOUN	_	_	1	nsubj:ben	_	Gloss=child|SpaceAfter=No
10	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

Since the agent and patient stay core arguments even in the locative and benefactive voices, we actually have a ditransitive clause with three core arguments. In contrast, the verbs of giving, which are typical representatives of ditransitive predicates in other languages, form a standard transitive clause in the agent and patient voices, as the recipient is coded as a directioal (locative) oblique dependent.

# text = Nagbigay ang lalaki ng libro sa babae.
# text_en = The man gave a book to the woman.
1	Nagbigay	bigay	VERB	_	Aspect=Perf|Mood=Ind|VerbForm=Fin|Voice=Agf	0	root	_	Gloss=gave
2	ang	ang	DET	_	Case=Nom|Definite=Def|PronType=Art	3	det	_	Gloss=the
3	lalaki	lalaki	NOUN	_	_	1	nsubj	_	Gloss=man
4	ng	ng	DET	_	Case=Acc|PronType=Art	5	det	_	Gloss=DET
5	libro	libro	NOUN	_	_	1	obj	_	Gloss=libro
6	sa	sa	DET	_	Case=Loc|PronType=Art	7	det	_	Gloss=DIR
7	babae	babae	NOUN	_	_	1	obl	_	Gloss=woman|SpaceAfter=No
8	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

Plains Cree

See also:

The Algonquian (North American) language Plains Cree is similar to Basque in its cross-referencing of both the subject and the object by verbal inflection. It is also very dissimilar to Basque due to its almost complete lack of case marking on the nouns. Yet the marking of the argument on the verbal head is sufficient to allow for a relatively free word order (unlike English).

Like in many other languages where person and number of an argument is cross-referenced by the verb, the argument does not need to appear as a separate word if it would be just a pronoun.

# text = Niwīcihānānak.
# text_en = We help them.
1	Niwīcihānānak	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Clusivity[high]=Ex|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Plur|Number[low]=Plur|Person[high]=1|Person[low]=3|Tense=Pres|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=we-help-them|MSeg=ni-wīcih-ā-nān-ak|MGloss=1-help-DIR-1PL-3PL|SpaceAfter=No
2	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Niwīcihikonānak.
# text_en = They help us.
1	Niwīcihikonānak	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Clusivity[high]=Ex|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Plur|Number[low]=Plur|Person[high]=1|Person[low]=3|Tense=Pres|Voice=Inv	0	root	_	Gloss=they-help-us|MSeg=ni-wīcih-iko-nān-ak|MGloss=1-help-INV-1PL-3PL|SpaceAfter=No
2	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

The two verb forms in the two previous examples differ in Voice. The first example is in the direct voice, where the argument higher in a language-specific obliqueness hierarchy is more agent-like and the other argument is more patient-like. First person arguments are higher than third person arguments, therefore the agent is “we” and the patient is “they”.

In the second example, the argument-marking morphemes have not changed but the verb is in the inverse voice where the argument lower in the hierarchy (“they”) is the agent and the higher argument (“we”) is the patient.

In a parallel to the active-passive voice system of English, we can postulate that the argument higher in the hierarchy is the subject (i.e., the most core argument), and the lower argument is the object. And like with English passives, the voice has to be considered when one wants to map the grammatical relations to semantic roles. In the two previous examples, the arguments are not overtly present and the dependency relations are not visible. However, if there are overt arguments in an inverse voice clause, we may again want to use relation subtypes to signal that the default interpretation does not apply. TBD: Should we use nsubj:pass and obj:agent as in symmetric-voice languages? Or something else? Or should we even replace nsubj:pass in other languages by something more neutral? Alternatively, we could make the direct-inverse voice system special in that we resolve the roles already in the relation labeling, i.e., higher-ranking argument will be labeled nsubj in direct voice and obj in inverse voice, and lower-ranking argument will be obj in direct voice and nsubj in inverse voice. That is, if there are not some typical subject tests known from other languages that will contradict our proposal. At present I do not know anything about subjecthood tests applied to Plains Cree.

# text = Nikī-wīcihāw Cān.
# text_en = I helped John.
1	Nikī-wīcihāw	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Sing|Person[high]=1|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=I-helped-him|MSeg=ni-kī-wīcih-ā-w|MGloss=1-PAST-help-DIR-3SG
2	Cān	Cān	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Prx	1	obj	_	Gloss=John|SpaceAfter=No
3	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Nikī-wīcihāwak Cān ēkwa Mēriy.
# text_en = I helped John and Mary.
1	Nikī-wīcihāwak	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Plur|Person[high]=1|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=I-helped-them|MSeg=ni-kī-wīcih-ā-w-ak|MGloss=1-PAST-help-DIR-3-3PL
2	Cān	Cān	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Prx	1	obj	_	Gloss=John
3	ēkwa	ēkwa	CCONJ	_	_	4	cc	_	Gloss=and
4	Mēriy	Mēriy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Prx	2	conj	_	Gloss=Mary|SpaceAfter=No
5	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

If two third-person arguments are involved, one of them is considered proximate (more topical, higher in the obliqueness hierarchy) and the other is considered obviative (less topical, lower in the obliqueness hierarchy). The obviative noun is marked morphologically by the suffix -a. Note that Plains Cree distinguishes singular and plural Number for proximate but not for obviative third person arguments.

Current UD data (as of UD 2.1) does not include languages with direct-inverse voice systems and proximate-obviative division of third-person arguments. Joakim: But I think similar cases are discussed with reference to UD in this paper on Arapaho. The guidelines define a special value for the “fourth person”, which could be used for obviative arguments (see Person). This value is inspired by the Unimorph project. However, the Unimorph specification seems to favor using Person=3 with an additional subfeature for proximate and obviative status: “In some languages, a fourth person category is used to describe an otherwise third-person referent that is differentiated from other third-person referents by a switch-reference-like distinction … or, more commonly, by a distinction in obviation status… For the purposes of morphological distinctions, these fourth person categories may call for dedicated verbal morphology. While in some cases their meaning can be captured by third person (3) plus switch-reference features or features marking pragmatic voice distinctions (such as the proximate (PRX) and obviative (OBV)), we include a fourth person category with the feature 4 to allow for identification of a fourth person category when the semantic distinctions are complicated or not strictly inflectional in nature.”

A possible alternative would be to revoke the “fourth person” and define a separate feature Obviation with the values Prx and Obv. There are two places where the feature could be used: as a verbal feature (cross-referencing the argument) and as a nominal feature (marking the argument). Especially in nominal inflection it seems preferable to use a new feature rather than assert that the noun inflects for person (with values 3 and 4 only).

Yet another option would be to include the nominal inflection under Case marking, i.e., a noun with the obviative morpheme would be Case=Acc and the unmarked nouns would be Case=Nom. However, such an extension could be perceived as stretching the usual definition of case too far. The main oddity would be that it only applies to third-person referents and only if two such referents compete as arguments of the same verb. If one argument of the verb is first-person and the other third-person, both will stay in the “nominative” regardless of their semantic roles. Therefore, defining a new feature, separate from Case, is probably a better and less confusing solution.

# text = Cāniy kī-wīcihēw Mērīwa.
# text_en = Johnny helped Mary.
1	Cāniy	Cāniy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Prx	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=Johnny
2	kī-wīcihēw	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Sing|Person[high]=3|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=helped|MSeg=kī-wīcih-ē-w|MGloss=PAST-help-DIR-3SG
3	Mērīwa	Mēriy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Obv	2	obj	_	Gloss=Mary|MSeg=Mēriy-wa|MGloss=Mary-OBV|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Cānīwa kī-wīcihēw Mēriy.
# text_en = Mary helped Johnny.
1	Cānīwa	Cāniy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Obv	2	obj	_	Gloss=Johnny|MSeg=Cāniy-wa|MGloss=Johnny-OBV
2	kī-wīcihēw	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Sing|Person[high]=3|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=helped|MSeg=kī-wīcih-ē-w|MGloss=PAST-help-DIR-3SG
3	Mēriy	Mēriy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Prx	2	nsubj	_	Gloss=Mary|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Cāniy kī-wīcihik Mērīwa.
# text_en = Mary helped Johnny. / Johnny was helped by Mary.
1	Cāniy	Cāniy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Prx	2	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=Johnny
2	kī-wīcihik	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Sing|Person[high]=3|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Inv	0	root	_	Gloss=helped|MSeg=kī-wīcih-ikw-w|MGloss=PAST-help-INV-3SG
3	Mērīwa	Mēriy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Obv	2	obj:agent	_	Gloss=Mary|MSeg=Mēriy-wa|MGloss=Mary-OBV|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.


# text = Cānīwa kī-wīcihik Mēriy.
# text_en = Johnny helped Mary. / Mary was helped by Johnny.
1	Cānīwa	Cāniy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Obv	2	obj:agent	_	Gloss=Johnny|MSeg=Cāniy-wa|MGloss=Johnny-OBV
2	kī-wīcihik	wīcih	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Sing|Person[high]=3|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Inv	0	root	_	Gloss=helped|MSeg=kī-wīcih-ikw-w|MGloss=PAST-help-INV-3SG
3	Mēriy	Mēriy	PROPN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Sing|Obviation=Prx	2	nsubj:pass	_	Gloss=Mary|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.

Ditransitive verbs (that is, verbs with three arguments) still cross-reference only two arguments on the verb. It is always the recipient-like argument that is cross-referenced, while the theme stays outside. Hence the recipient (goal) is more core than the theme, and deserves to be labeled obj. The question is whether the theme is still a core argument (and thus labeled iobj) or it is already oblique. Allowing it the core status seems to be at a similar level of tolerance as with the non-accusative objects in languages like Czech. The themes in Plains Cree are not indexed on the verb, though their own surface form (bare nominal) is not different from the core arguments.

# text = Nikī-miyāw anima masinahikan.
# text_en = I gave him/her that book.
1	Nikī-miyāw	miy	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Sing|Person[high]=1|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=I-gave-him/her|MSeg=ni-kī-miy-ā-w|MGloss=1-PAST-give.to-DIR-3SG
2	anima	anima	DET	_	Animacy=Inan|Number=Sing|PronType=Dem	3	det	_	Gloss=that|MGloss=DEM.0's
3	masinahikan	masinahikan	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Number=Sing	1	iobj	_	Gloss=book|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

In the above example, the verb stem used is for animate objects, while masinahikan “book” is inanimate. That is a proof that the 3rd person singular cross-reference on the verb does not refer to the book but to an animate recipient that is not overtly represented in the sentence.

Even though Plains Cree does not use morphological cases to distinguish agents from patients, there is a form of nouns that can be classified as the locative case (Case=Loc). It clearly marks the noun as oblique and unable to be cross-referenced by verbal inflection. The other, bare nominal forms, could then be tagged as nominative (Case=Nom), or, optionally, left with the Case feature empty.

# text = Akocikanihk nikī-ahāwak nitastisak.
# text_en = I put my mitts on the shelf.
1	Akocikanihk	akocikan	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Loc	2	obl	_	Gloss=shelf|MSeg=akocikan-ihk|MGloss=shelf-LOC
2	nikī-ahāwak	ah	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Plur|Person[high]=1|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=I-put|MSeg=ni-kī-ah-ā-wak|MGloss=1-PAST-put-DIR-3PL
3	nitastisak	astis	NOUN	_	Animacy=Anim|Number=Plur|Person[psor]=1	2	obj	_	Gloss=my-mitts|MSeg=nit-astis-ak|MGloss=1-mitt-PL|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	2	punct	_	Gloss=.

Adpositions may accompany the locative, too:

# text = Nikī-nīhtināw akocikanihk ohci.
# text_en = I took him/her/it down from the shelf.
1	Nikī-nīhtināw	nīhtin	VERB	_	Animacy=Anim|Mood=Ind|Number[high]=Sing|Number[low]=Sing|Person[high]=1|Person[low]=3|Tense=Past|Voice=Dir	0	root	_	Gloss=I-took-it-down|MSeg=ni-kī-nīhtin-ā-w|MGloss=1-PAST-take.down-DIR-3SG
2	akocikanihk	akocikan	NOUN	_	Animacy=Inan|Case=Loc	1	obl	_	Gloss=shelf|MSeg=akocikan-ihk|MGloss=shelf-LOC
3	ohci	ohci	ADP	_	_	2	case	_	Gloss=from|SpaceAfter=No
4	.	.	PUNCT	_	_	1	punct	_	Gloss=.

TO DO: Discuss somewhere the layered features that are needed when multiple arguments are cross-referenced by verbal morphology. Try to standardize the layer names.

Summary of Relations