UD for Indonesian

Tokenization and Word Segmentation

• In general, words are delimited by whitespace characters. Special treatments are given to multiword tokens and punctuations.

• Special treatments of multiword tokens:
  • Multiword tokens that ended with particles -lah/-kah/-tah/-pun are split into two tokens. These particles are usually used to emphasize the word before them. Particles of -lah/-kah/-tah are clitics, while particle pun can be written as clitic or a single token. The examples of how to tokenize these clitic particles are as follows:
    • bacalah is split into baca “read” and lah
    • diakah is split into dia “he/she” and kah
    • apatah is split into apa “what” and tah
    • walaupun is split into walau “although” and pun
  • Multiword tokens that contain clitics of -ku “me/my”, -mu “you/your”, -nya “he/him/she/her/it” are split into two tokens, with exceptions for words ended with -nya.
    • Words ended with -nya where _-nya- itself serves as a pronoun or determiner are split into two tokens. For example:
      • Word -nya as pronoun, as in mencintainya “love him/her/it”, this token is split into mencintai “love” and nya “him/her/it”.
      • Word -nya as determiner, as in bukunya “his/her/its book”, this token is split into buku “book” and nya “his/her/its”.
    • Words ended with -nya that functions as adverbs or adjectives are not split into two tokens. For example:
      • adverbs ended with -nya: khususnya “especially”, awalnya “initially”, akhirnya “finally”
      • adjectives ended with -nya: sebelumnya “previous”, sesudahnya “next”, berikutnya “next”
• Special treatments for punctuations. All punctuation symbols are separated from the words, except in two cases:
  • Hyphen in reduplicated words. Indonesian has many reduplicated words as nouns (both singular and plural), verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and so on. These reduplicated words are not split and remain one token. The examples of reduplicated words are:
    • Singular noun: mata-mata “spy”
    • Plural noun: anak-anak “children”
    • Verb: merobek-robek “shredding”
    • Adjective: hiruk-pikuk “noisy”
    • Adverb: terus-menerus “continuously”
  • For abbreviations. All abbreviations such as Mr., M.Sc. Tn., are not split and remain one token.

Morphology

Tags

• We refer to KBBI (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia/Indonesian Great Dictionary) as the reference dictionary. However, since this dictionary only defines 7 word classes: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, particle and number, we need to make adjustments so that the tags conform to UD v2.
• Indonesian PUD uses all 17 universal POS categories.
• PART is used for:
  • negation words: tidak “no”, tak “no”, bukan “no”
  • particles of -lah, -kah, -tah, pun, that have been discussed in the previous section.
• The auxiliary (AUX) vs. VERB distinction is based on examples for English treebank, since initially there is no AUX type in KBBI. We defined 14 Indonesian words as AUX as follows:
  • adalah and ialah “be” serve as copulas.
  • akan “will/would” for the future tense.
  • sedang “be” for the present tense.
  • telah and sudah “have/has/had” for the past tense.
  • bisa, dapat and mampu as the equivalents of modal “can/could”.
  • boleh as the equivalent of modal “may”.
  • mungkin as the equivalent of modal “might”.
  • harus as the equivalent of modal “must”.
  • sebaiknya and seharusnya as the equivalent of modal ‘shall/should’
• The pronoun (PRON) vs. determiner (DET) distinction is also based on examples for English treebank, since DET word class also is not defined in KBBI.
  • The following word types are tagged as PRON:
    • personal pronouns, such as saya/aku/ku “I”, kamu/mu/anda “you”, dia/ia/nya “he/she/it/him/her/its”, kami/kita “we/us/our”, mereka “they/them/their”
    • interrogative pronouns, apa “what”, siapa “who” as in Apa yang kamu inginkan? “What do you want?”
    • relative pronouns: apa “what”, siapa “who” as in Saya tahu siapa yang kamu maksud. “I know who you mean”
    • indefinite pronouns: seseorang “seomeone/somebody”, sesuatu “something”
    • total pronouns, such as semua “all” as in Semua kecuali bukumu “All except your books”.
    • demonstrative pronouns: ini “this” as in Ini bukan salahmu. “This is not your fault”.
  • The following word types are tagged as DET:
    • possessive pronouns. All personal pronouns in Indonesian can also be used as possessive pronouns. For example:
      • -nya as PRON as in Aku membawanya ke sini. “I bring it here.”
      • -nya as DET as in Rumahnya di Depok. “His/her house is in Depok.”
    • pronominal numerals: beberapa “some/many”, semua “all” as in semua siswa “all students”
    • demonstrative determiners: ini “this” as in Kota ini sangat indah “This city is beautiful”
• Indonesian has the following coordinating conjunction words (CCONJ):
  • dan, serta, maupun as the equivalents of “and” in English
  • atau “or”
  • tapi, tetapi, namun, melainkan as the equivalents of “but” in English
• Indonesian also has (de)verbal form as ADJ, ADV or NOUN
  • Verbal adjecive as in pesawat terbang (plane). Word terbang “fly” is a verb, but in this noun phrase it functions as an adjective.
  • Verbal adverb as in secara terpisah “separately”. Word terpisah “separated” is a verb, but when used together with secara “with”, the two tokens serve as an adverb.
  • Verbal noun as in Hobinya adalah memancing “His hobby is fishing”. In this sentence, memancing “fishing” functions as a noun.

Features

• We propose the use of 13 of 24 features defined in UD v2 that are relevant to Indonesian grammar:
  • Abbr, with one possible value: Yes. This feature can be applied to all UPOS categories, except PUNCT and SYM.
  • Clusivity, applies to DET and PRON and with two possible values: Ex and In.
    • Clusivity=Ex for kami “we/our”
    • Clusivity=In for kita “we/our”
  • Degree, applies to ADJ with one possible value: Sup.
    • Degree=Sup for superlative adjectives, such as terbaik “best”, tercantik “most beautiful”, etc.
  • Foreign, with one possible value: Yes. This feature only applies to X.
  • Number, applies to DET, NOUN, and PRON, with three possible values: Sing, Dual or Plur.
  • NumType, applies to NUM and ADJ, with two possible values: Card or Ord.
    • NumType=Card is used for NUM.
    • NumType=Ord is used for ordinal numbers tagged as ADJ.
  • Person, applies to PRON and DET with three possible values: 1, 2, 3.
  • Polarity, with one possible value: Neg, applies to PART and INTJ.
    • Polarity=Neg for PART applies for negation particles as in Saya tidak menyukainya “I do not like him/her/it”. The word tidak “no” will be tagged with Polarity=Neg.
    • Polarity=Neg for INTJ as in Tidak, terima kasih “No, thanks”. The word tidak “no” will be given feature Polarity=Neg.
  • Poss, applies to DET, with one possible value: Yes. This feature will be applied to all DET that serve as possessive pronouns.
  • PronType, applies to PRON, DET, and ADV. For Indonesian, 7 possible values can be applied:
    1. PronType=Dem, applies to ADV, DET, and PRON such as for itu “that” in Itu masalahmu. “That is your problem.”
    2. PronType=Emp, applies to DET such as for sendiri “self” in Kamu harus percaya pada dirimu sendiri “You have to believe in yourself”.
    3. PronType=Ind, applies to ADV, DET, and PRON such as for seseorang “someone/somebody” or sesuatu “something”
    4. PronType=Int, applies to PRON and ADV.
       • PronType=Int for PRON, such as for apa “what” and siapa “who” in interrogative sentences
       • PronType=Int for ADV, such as for bagaimana “how” and kapan “when” in interrogative sentences
    5. PronType=Prs, applies to PRON or DET for all personal and possessive pronouns or determiners.
    6. PronType=Rel, applies to PRON and ADV.
       • PronType=Rel for PRON, such as for apa “what”, siapa “who”, yang “that”.
       • PronType=Rel for ADV, such as for bagaimana “how” and kapan “when” in non-interrogative sentences
    7. PronType=Tot, applies to ADV, DET, and PRON.
       • PronType=Tot for PRON, such as for semua “all” in Semua adalah milikmu. “All is yours.”
       • PronType=Tot for DET, such as for semua “all” in Semua siswa terlihat senang. “All students look happy.”
       • PronType=Tot for ADV, such as for selalu “always” in Dia selalu terlambat. “She is always late.”
  • Reflex, applies to PRON with one possible value: Yes.
  • Typo, with one possible value, Yes. This feature can be applied to all UPOS categories except PUNCT and SYM.
  • Voice, applies to VERB with two possible values: Act and Pass. Voice alternation is treated as inflection and the active and passive counterparts have the same lemma.
    • Voice=Act for active verbs that have characteristic of using base word, prefixes me-, ber-
      • Active verbs without affix: duduk “sit”, pergi “go”
      • Active verbs with prefix me-: memperbaiki “fix”, mengakui “admit”
      • Active verbs with prefix ber-: belajar “study”, bekerja “work”
    • Voice=Pass for passive verbs that have characteristic of using prefixes di-, ter- or circumfix ke-an.
      • Passive verbs with prefix di- : dipublikasikan “be published”, dilepaskan “be released”
      • Passive verbs with prefix ter-: terbakar “on fire”, terjatuh “fell”, terkejut “shocked”
      • Passive verbs with confix ke-an: ketinggalan “lag behind”, kecurian “be stolen”
• These 11 UD v2 features are not relevant to Indonesian grammar:
  • Gender. Indonesian words have no gender.
  • Animacy. Similar with Gender, there is no requirements of agreements between words in Indonesian.
  • NounClass, with the same reason for Gender and Animacy
  • Case, with the same reason for Gender, Animacy, and NounClass
  • Tense. Indonesian verbs have the same form in all tenses.
  • Aspect, with the same reason for Tense.
  • Evident
  • Definite
  • Mood
  • Polite
  • VerbForm

Syntax

Core Arguments, Oblique Arguments and Adjuncts

• Nominal subject (nsubj) is a noun phrase, usually written before the predicate.
• A verb may serve as the subject and is labeled as clausal subject, either as csubj or csubj:pass.
• Transitive verbs will have a noun phrase as the object (obj). The default word order is SVO, so the subject normally precedes and the object follows the verb (with the exception of inverted sentences).
• Passive verbs could be followed by agent (obl:agent), such as in Pesan yang dikirimkan presiden “Messages sent by president”, presiden “president” is the agent of predicate dikirimkan “be sent”.
• Verbs can have oblique arguments. If the argument includes a preposition, we label it as obl. Special for temporal modifiers, we label it as obl:tmod.

Non-verbal Clauses

• The copula ialah or adalah (be) is optionally used in equational, attributional, locative, possessive and benefactory nonverbal clauses. The two forms are interchangeable but adalah is more common. For example: “This is my house.”, in Indonesian can be written as:
  • Ini rumahku., without copula
  • Ini adalah rumahku., with copula adalah

Relations Overview

• The following 13 relation subtypes are used in Indonesian PUD:
  • acl:relcl for relative clauses that modify a noun phrase. In Indonesian, relative clauses usually use yang as the subject of the clause.
  • advmod:emph for particles (PART) -lah, -kah, -tah, pun that emphasize other words that could be a NOUN, PRON, VERB, or SCONJ. For example, token itulah “that” in tokenization phase was split into itu “that” and lah, then lah is annotated as the dependent of itu and the relation between them is advmod:emph.
  • case:adv for adposition (ADP) that together with its following word of ADJ/ADV/VERB serve as an adverb. In this case the ADP word is annotated as the dependent of ADJ/ADV/VERB and the dependency relation between them is case:adv, and the relation between the ADJ/ADV/VERB word and its parent is advmod. For example:
    • ADP + ADJ as adverb, such as secara hati-hati “carefully”, that consists of secara “with”_ (ADP) + hati-hati “careful” (ADJ)
    • ADP + ADV as adverb, such as dengan sungguh-sungguh “seriously”, that consists of dengan “with” (ADP) + sungguh-sungguh “serious” (ADV)
    • ADP + VERB as adverb, such as secara terpisah “separately”, that consists of secara “with” (ADP) + terpisah “separated” (VERB).
  • cc:preconj, such as in baik Mongolia maupun Tingkok “both Mongolia and China”, baik “both” is considered as preconjunct.
  • csubj:pass for clausal subjects of passive verbs.
  • det:poss for possessive relationship between NOUN/PROPN and possessive pronoun that tagged as (DET). For example, in temanku “my friend” that is split into teman “friend” and ku “my”, token ku “my” will be given deprel det:poss.
  • flat:foreign to label sequences of foreign words.
  • flat:range for noun phrases that consist of range, such as 2019-2020 will be separated into three tokens, and the relation between 2020 to 2019 is annotated as flat:range.
  • nmod:poss for possessive relationship between NOUN/PROPN and another NOUN/PROPN. For example, in istri Trump “Trump’s wife”, token Trump will be given deprel nmod:poss.
  • nmod:tmod for the head of time-related noun phrases that becomes dependent of a noun phrase. For example, in pengeluaran tahun ini “this year spending”, tahun ini “this year” modifies pengeluaran “spending”, and the head of this phrase, tahun “year” will be annotated as the dependent of pengeluaran “spending” with the deprel nmod:tmod.
  • nsubj:pass for nominal subjects of passive verbs
  • obl:agent for agents of passive verbs
  • obl:tmod for head of time-related noun phrases that depend on a VERB/ADJ. For example, in Kali ini saya setuju. “This time I agree.”, kali ini “this time” describes the predicate setuju “agree”, and the head of this noun phrase, kali “time”, will be annotated as the dependent of setuju “agree” with the deprel obl:tmod
• The following main relation types are not used in Indonesian PUD:
  • clf
  • expl
  • reparandum

Treebanks

There are 2 Indonesian UD treebanks:

• Indonesian-GSD
• Indonesian-PUD

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