Dependencies
Note: nmod, neg, and punct appear in two places.
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acl: clausal modifier of noun
acl stands for finite clauses that modify a nominal. The head of the acl relation is the noun
that is modified, and the dependent is the head of the clause that modifies the noun. Greek relative
are assigned a specific subtype label acl:relcl.
acl:relcl: relative clause modifier
A relative clause modifier of an noun is a finite clause that modifies the noun and is introduced by που or a (structure including) an οποίος-relative pronoun. The relation points from the noun that is modified to the head of the relative clause. οποίος-relative pronoun are assigned typical nominal relations like dobj, nsubj and nmod. A det relation is also possible.
In the current version of the UD guidelines for Greek, we use the mark relation for the Greek relativizer που.
acl:relcl: acl:relcl
This document is a placeholder for the language-specific documentation
for acl:relcl.
advcl: adverbial clause modifier
An adverbial clause modifier is a clause which modifies a verb or other predicate (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. This includes things such as a temporal, consequence, purpose, conditional clauses, etc. The dependent must be clausal (or else it is an advmod) and the dependent is the main predicate of the clause.
This relation is also used for optional avderbial predicatives like
advmod: adverbial modifier
An adverbial modifier of a word is a (non-clausal) adverb or adverbial phrase that serves to modify the meaning of the word.
Note that in some grammatical traditions, the term adverbial modifier covers constituents that function like adverbs regardless whether they are realized by adverbs, adpositional phrases, or nouns in particular morphological cases. We differentiate adverbials realized as adverbs (advmod) and adverbials realized by noun phrases or adpositional phrases (nmod).
amod: adjectival modifier
An adjectival modifier of a noun is any adjectival phrase that serves to modify the meaning of the noun.
appos: appositional modifier
An appositional modifier of a noun is a nominal immediately following the first noun that serves to define or modify that noun. It includes parenthesized examples, as well as defining abbreviations in one of these structures.
aux: auxiliary
We use the aux relation for:
- forms of the auxiliary verb έχω in periphrastic tenses.
- the subjunctive particles να and ας
- the future particle θα
- the impersonal verb πρέπει expressing obligation and probability
- the impersonal verb μπορεί when expressing possibility.
The personal verb μπορώ expressing ability or permission should be treated as a regular verb.
Negative particles δεν and μην are assigned the relation neg.
auxpass: passive auxiliary
Diffs
The auxpass is not used for UD Greek.
case: case marking
The case relation for Greek is used for prepositions.
A small list of postpositions in fixed expressions are labeled with case. TODO: An alternative analysis would be to label them using the mwe relation.
Certain adverbs may be followed by prepositions. We label these adverbs with the case relation and attach to them the prepositions with a [mwe] relation.
We use the case relation when these adverbs take a clitic in genitive as a complement.
When prepositions are used as subordinate conjunctions to introduce clauses, they are labelled with the mark relation. See mark for more examples.
TODO
Add guidelines on tokenization of στ- preposition+article combinations.
cc: coordinating conjunction
For more on coordination, see the conj relation.
A cc is the relation between the first conjunct and
a coordinating conjunction like και or αλλά delimiting another conjunct.
A coordinating conjunction may also appear at the beginning
or close to the beginning of a sentence. This is also called
a cc, and it depends on the root predicate of the sentence.
(In fact there is a coordination that spans multiple sentences.
We cannot attach a word to the first conjunct because it is in another sentence.
Thus we attach it to the first conjunct available in the current sentence: its main predicate.)
ccomp: clausal complement
A clausal complement of a verb or adjective is a finite dependent clause which functions like an object of the verb or adjective.
For clausal complements for nouns, see acl .
For clausal complements where the subject of the complement clause obligatorily
corefers with an argument (subject or object) of the higher clause, see xcomp.
compound: compound
We use the compound relation for
- the few noun noun compounds of Modern Greek:
- for combinations of numbers:
The two other compounding relations are:
- mwe for fixed grammaticized expressions with function words
- name for proper nouns constituted of multiple nominal elements
conj: conjunct
A conjunct is the relation between two elements connected by a
coordinating conjunction, such as και, αλλά, etc. We treat
conjunctions asymmetrically: The head of the relation is the first
conjunct and all the other conjuncts depend on it via the conj relation.
Coordinate clauses are treated the same way as coordination of other constituent types:
Coordination may be asyndetic, which means that the coordinating conjunction is omitted. Commas or other punctuation symbols will delimit the conjuncts in the typical case.
Coordination can apply to most word categories.
TODO
Shared dependents. Nested coordination.
cop: copula
In copular clauses, the predicative acts as the head word of the clause, and the copular verb depends on it using a cop (copula) dependency. The only copular verb in the scheme for Greek is είμαι (be).
The same label is used in Greek sentences (often in informal discourse or headlines), where deletion of είμαι may occur.
Whenever the copula has a clausal argument, ccomp is used, with the copula being the head.
csubj: clausal subject
A clausal subject is a clausal syntactic subject of a clause, i.e., the subject is itself a clause.
csubjpass: clausal passive subject
A clausal passive subject is a clausal syntactic subject of a passive clause (or more generally, any voice where the proto-agent argument does not become the subject of the clause). In the example below, that she lied is the subject.
dep: unspecified dependency
This document is a placeholder for the language-specific documentation
for dep.
det: determiner
A determiner is the relation between the head of a noun phrase and its determiner.
In the case of polydefinites, we attach both definite articles to the nominal head.
discourse: discourse element
This is used for interjections and other discourse particles and elements (which are not clearly linked to the structure of the sentence, except in an expressive way). We generally define this to include: interjections (ωχ, αχά) and fillers (εε, α).
dislocated: dislocated elements
The dislocated relation is used for fronted or postposed elements
that do not fulfill the usual core grammatical relations of a
sentence, especially in sentences from transcribed speech.
The dislocated elements attach to the head of the clause to which they belong:
dobj: direct object
The direct object of a verb is the noun phrase that denotes the entity acted upon. The direct object is typically marked by the accusative case in Greek.
However, some verbs take objects in genitive:
In general, if there is just one object, it should be labeled dobj,
regardless of the morphological case or semantic role that it bears.
When two objects are present, one of them is labeled as dobj and the other as iobj. Generally, the most directly affected object (patient) is marked as dobj. The one exception is when there is a clausal complement. Then the clausal complement is regarded as iobj “clausal direct object” and an object nominal will be an iobj. See iobj for more details.
See the expl relation for cases of clitic doubling.
expl: expletive
The expl relation is used in UD Greek for cases of clitic doubling.
But when clitics appear alone in the sentence, they are labeled as core arguments.
foreign: foreign words
We use foreign to label sequences of foreign words. These are given
a linear analysis: the head is the first token in the foreign phrase.
foreign does not apply to words transliterated to the Greek script,
loanwords or to foreign names. It applies to quoted foreign text
incorporated in a sentence/discourse of the host language (unless we want
to and know how to annotate the internal structure according
to the syntax of the foreign language).
goeswith: goes with
This relation links two parts of a word that are separated in text that is not well edited. The head is in some sense the “main” part, often the second part.
iobj: indirect object
The indirect object of a verb is any nominal structure that is a core argument of the verb but is not its subject or direct object. The prototypical example is the recipient of ditransitive verbs of exchange, that is often realized as a nominal element preceded by a σε-preposition.
Benefactives and source semantic roles are also marked as indirect objects. Recipient and source roles can be realized as nominal elements preceded by για- and από- prepositions.
Recipient, benefactives and source roles can be cliticized in genitive.
When two objects in accusative are present, one of them is annotated as dobj and the other as iobj. Generally, the most directly affected object (patient) is marked as dobj.
If there is just one object, it should be labeled dobj, regardless of the morphological case or semantic role. For example, διδάσκω can take either the subject matter or the recipient as the only object, and in both cases it would be analyzed as the dobj:
The one exception is when there is a clausal complement. Then the clausal complement is regarded as a ccomp “clausal direct object” and an object nominal will be an iobj, parallel to the simple ditransitive case:
See the expl relation for cases of clitic doubling.
Diffs
At present and contrary to the general UD definition of iobj, in UD Greek we allow prepositional indirect objects.
list: list
The list relation is used for chains of comparable items. In lists with more than two items, all items of the list should modify the first one. Informal and web text often contains passages which are meant to be interpreted as lists but are parsed as single sentences. Email signatures often contain these structures, in the form of contact information: the different contact information items are labeled as list; the key-value pair relations are labeled as appos.
mark: marker
A marker is the word introducing a finite clause subordinate to another clause. For a complement clause, these typically include ότι, πως, μήπως, αν etc. Notice that we annotate να, θα and ας particles as instances of aux.
For an adverbial clause, the marker is typically a subordinating conjunction like αφού or επειδή. The marker is a dependent of the subordinate clause head.
When prepositions are used as subordinate conjunctions to introduce clauses, they are also labelled with the mark relation.
For certain multiword subordinate conjunctions, we use combinations of the mark and the mwe relations.
mwe: multi-word expression
For examples of multiword expressions, see and case and mark.
Multiword expressions are annotated in a flat, head-initial structure,
in which all words in the expression modify the first one using the
mwe label.
TODO
A list of common mwe’s
name: name
We use the name relation for proper nouns constituted of more than one words.
The first (leftmost) word is the head, and the other words are direct dependents of the head.
Regular syntactic relations are used for Greek: (i) for a modifier word including determiners, adjectives and adverbs (ii) to connect together the words of a description or name which involve embedded prepositional phrases, sentences, etc.
This also holds for organization names with clear syntactic modification structure as in:
This convention is not used for foreign names (transliterated or not), which are annotated in a flat, head-initial structure, in
which all words in the name modify the first one using the name label.
neg: negation modifier
The negation modifier is the relation between a negation word and the word it modifies.
Modifiers labeled neg depend either on a noun (group “noun
dependents”) an adjective or on a predicate (group “non-core dependents of clausal
predicates”).
nmod: nominal modifier
The nmod relation is used for nominal modifiers. They depend either
on another noun (group “noun dependents”) or on a predicate (group
“non-core dependents of clausal predicates”).
nmod is a noun (or noun phrase) functioning as a
non-core (oblique) argument or adjunct.
This means that it functionally corresponds to an adverbial when it attaches to a verb, adjective or other adverb.
But when attaching to a noun, it corresponds to an attribute, or genitive complement.
The nmod relation can be further specified by the case label assigned to prepositions.
- An exception for Greek is the iobj label assigned to certain nominal elements preceded by σε, από and για prepositions. See iobj for more.
nmod is also used for nominal modifiers indicating time, cause, amount etc.:
nsubj: nominal subject
A nominal subject is a nominal phrase which is the syntactic subject of a clause. (See csubj for cases when the subject is clausal.
nsubjpass: passive nominal subject
A passive nominal subject is a noun phrase which is the syntactic subject of a passive clause (or more generally, any voice where the proto-agent argument does not become the subject of the clause).
Notice that the nsubj relation is used for the subjects of
- reflexive and reciprocal passive constructions
- deponent verbs (verbs that are active in meaning but have only passive voice forms)
nummod: numeric modifier
A numeric modifier of a noun is any number phrase that serves to modify the meaning of the noun with a quantity.
parataxis: parataxis
The parataxis relation (from Greek for “place side by side”) is a relation between the main verb of a clause and other sentential elements, such as a sentential parenthetical, two sentences placed side by side without any explicit coordination or subordination, or a clause after a “:” or a “·” (άνω τελεία), in case a sentence splitter has recognized two different sentences.
punct: punctuation
A punctuation token is labeled punct and it is attached to the element it delimits. Thus, sentence-delimiting punctuation, such as “.”, “!” or “?” should be attached to the main verb (or predicative) of the sentence. Punctuation tokens always attach to content words and can never have dependents.
A punctuation mark delimiting a subordinate clause is attached to the head word of the clause.
If there are several subordinate clauses within each other and the punctuation could delimit any of them, the shortest-spanning (closest) clause is selected.
A punctuation mark separating coordinated units is attached to the first conjunct.
Punctuation items related to parataxis are attached to the head of the first clause.
In direct speech parataxis, paired punctuation marks (quotation marks) are attached to the head of the phrase enclosed in the paired punctuation.
Generally, paired punctuation marks (quotes and brackets) should be attached to the head of the clause or the phrase enclosed in the paired punctuation.
If the above rule leads to non-projectivity, the punctuation is attached to the closest enclosed element.
Punctuation can also delimit short additions, such as nominal modifiers or appositions, and in such cases, the punctuation should be attached to the head of the addition.
List item markers such as bullets of a bulleted list are marked as punctuation attached to the head of the list item.
remnant: remnant in ellipsis
The remnant relation is used to provide a treatment of ellipsis (in
the case of gapping and stripping, where a predicational or verbal
head gets elided). A remnant corresponds to a correlate in a preceding clause.
The remnant relation connects each remnant to its correlate in the basic dependency representation.
reparandum: overridden disfluency
We use reparandum to indicate disfluencies overridden in a speech
repair. The disfluency is the dependent of the repair.
root: root
The root grammatical relation points to the root of the sentence. A
fake node ROOT is used as the governor. The ROOT node is indexed
with 0, since the indexing of real words in the sentence starts at 1.
vocative: vocative
The vocative relation is used to mark a dialogue participant addressed in text (common in emails and newsgroup postings). The relation links the addressee’s name to its host sentence.
xcomp: open clausal complement
An (xcomp) label is used in cases of obligatory coreference between
the subject of a finite να-clause, which is not present as a separate
word, and an argument (subject or object) of the higher clause.
There are some cases where the implied subject of both clauses is present in the complement clause. In these cases, we attach the subject to the verb of the complement clause.
The xcomp relation is also used for labelling obligatory predicatives in clauses where the verb heading the construction is not the copula είμαι
This relation is also used for the small list of resultatives like
For other optional secondary predicates of an adverbial nature, see advcl.